Chapter 7 American Government

Introduction

• Senator Ted Cruz’s early positioning for the $2016$ presidential race illustrates core campaign realities:
  • Symbolic venue choices (e.g., Liberty University) signal ideological alignment (evangelical/Christian values).
  • Explicit turnout appeals: Cruz urged students to “imagine millions of young people” voting, underscoring that mobilisation is as critical as persuasion.
• Central chapter questions:
  • What brings voters to the polls?
  • How do they decide once there?
  • How do registration rules, election structures, campaigns and direct-democracy tools shape those choices?

7.1 Voter Registration

• Purpose & Core Mechanics
  • Registration lets governments verify eligibility & assign correct ballot styles.
  • Ease varies by state, potentially increasing or depressing turnout.
• Historical Disenfranchisement Devices (post-Civil-War South)
  • Literacy tests, poll taxes, grandfather clauses, intimidation & violence.
  • Supreme Court declared grandfather clauses unconstitutional $(1915)$; Twenty-Fourth Amendment ended poll taxes $(1964)$.
  • Voting Rights Act $(1965)$:
  • Banned racial discrimination in election laws.
  • Allowed federal examiners; required pre-clearance for certain jurisdictions.
  • Shelby County v. Holder $(2013, 5–4)$ gutted coverage formula ⇒ states regained discretion, some tightened voter-ID / reduced polling places.
• Contemporary Registration Models
  • Automatic Registration (e.g., Oregon $2015$ “Motor-Voter plus”): DMV data used to register & update addresses.
  • Online Registration (AZ $2002$ first; $18+$ states now). Start-up cost: $\$250{,}000–\$750{,}000$.
  • No Registration (North Dakota).
  • Same-Day Registration (SDR): $14$ states + DC; turnout boost ≈ $4\%$ in $2012$.
  • Traditional Deadlines: up to $30$ days pre-election (e.g., TX, MI).
• Legal/Procedural Details
  • Typical application fields: name, address, party choice, citizenship affirmation, competency & felony status.
  • Residency requirements often $30$ days.
  • National Voter Registration Act $(1993)$ “Motor Voter”:
  • Registration offered with DMV & Social-Security forms.
  • Overall registrations ↑ $7\%$ ($1992–2012$) but did not markedly raise turnout.
  • Help America Vote Act $(2002$, response to $2000$ FL fiasco):
  • Required computerized statewide rolls, accessible voting equipment, disability accommodation.
• Roll Maintenance & Fraud Concerns
  • Pew $2012$: $24$ million registrations outdated.
  • Interstate Crosscheck $29$ states share data to detect duplicates.
  • Controversy: FL use of SAVE database flagged (and risked purging) eligible voters.
• Eligibility Variations
  • Standard: $18+$, citizen, resident, not in prison, mentally competent.
  • Felon disenfranchisement spectrum:
  • Permanent bar unless pardoned (FL, KY).
  • Application for restoration (MS, NV).
  • No restriction except election fraud (VT); Maine permits inmate voting.
  • Unique pledges: VT “Voter’s Oath”; WI ban on wagering on elections.
• Student Dilemma: Register “home” vs. “campus”
  • Trade-offs between familiarity, absentee logistics, local impact.
  • Distance > $2$ hrs from home correlates with lower turnout.

7.2 Voter Turnout

• Measuring Turnout
  • Voting-Age Population (VAP) vs. Voting-Eligible Population (VEP) vs. Registered Voters.
  • $2012$ presidential: $\text{Turnout} = 42\%$ of total population, $57\%$ of VAP, $60\%$ of VEP, $87\%$ of registered voters.
• Predictors of Participation
  • Age: $18–24$ lowest (registration $53.6\%$, voting $41.2\%$ in $2012$); $65–74$ highest (registration $79.7\%$, voting $73.5\%$).
  • Socio-economic status: College graduates turnout $\approx75\%$; high-income ($100{,}000–149{,}999$) turnout $76.9\%$.
  • Race/Ethnicity $2012$: Whites $63\%$, Blacks $62\%$, Asian $31.3\%$, Hispanic $31.8\%$; context matters (NM Hispanics $49\%$).
  • Gender: Women traditionally higher; $2016$ women turnout $73.7\%$ vs. men $63.8\%$.
• Factors Increasing Turnout
  • Compulsory voting (Belgium $87\%$ VAP, Turkey $86\%$).
  • Automatic or same-day registration; early voting; mail-only ballots (OR, CO, WA — CO midterms: $1.8$ → $2$ million votes $2010→2014$).
• Factors Decreasing Turnout
  • Stringent photo-ID laws (first strict: Indiana $2005$; upheld Crawford v. Marion County $2008$).
  • Multiple low-salience elections ⇒ voter fatigue.
  • Apathy / perception of non-competitiveness (chronic minorities, e.g., Dems in UT).
  • Barriers: registration deadlines, work/school on Tuesday, limited polling sites.

7.3 Elections

• Campaign-Finance Framework
  • Tillman Act $(1907)$ banned corporate $→$ candidate contributions.
  • Federal Election Campaign Act (1971$+$1974 amendments) created FEC; caps on donations; disclosure.
  • Buckley v. Valeo (1976): money = speech, personal spending limits struck.
  • Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (McCain-Feingold) (2002): banned soft money to parties; “I approve this message”; ad timing limits.
  • Citizens United v. FEC (2010)$+ Speechnow.org: Unlimited independent expenditures ⇒ <strong>super PACs</strong> (e.g., “Restore Our Future”$2012$raised$\$153\text{M}).
  • Current federal limits (indexed to inflation):
  • Individual →$candidate per election:$\$2{,}700.
  • Individual →$PAC:$\$5{,}000$;$→$national party:$\$33{,}400.
  • Multicandidate PAC →$candidate:$\$5{,}000.
• Nomination Stage
  • Primaries: Closed (party-members only), Open (any voter chooses ballot), Top-Two/Jungle (all candidates same ballot; top 2 advance).
  • Caucuses: In-person meeting, public alignment, delegate selection (e.g., Iowa).
  • Front-loading: States moving contests earlier; parties penalize via delegate reductions.
  • Delegates: Allotted ≈ party registration; CA Democrats 548$delegates$2016$vs. WY$18.
• Conventions
  • Platform (collection of issue planks), formal nomination, media “bump”.
  • Party with White House goes last (Democrats 2016).
• General Election Phase
  • Debates (since 1960 televised Kennedy–Nixon); visuals matter; candidates prepare extensively.
  • Election Day fixed: first Tuesday after first Monday in November (since 1845).
  • Electoral College: 538$electors; majority$270$; winner-take-all in$48 states + DC; Maine & Nebraska district system.
  • Faithless electors rare (DC 2000$blank, MN$2004 Edwards vote).
• Midterms & Coattails
  • Coattail effect: presidential popularity helps down-ballot (e.g., 2008 Dem gains).
  • Reverse in midterms: president’s party often loses seats (e.g., GOP gains 2010).

7.4 Campaigns & Voting

• Fund-Raising Dynamics
  • EMILY’s List principle: “Early Money Is Like Yeast”.
  • Early →$perceived viability →$ media + donors.
  • $2015$ early totals: Clinton $\$47\text{M}$, Cruz $\$14\text{M}$, Bush $\$11\text{M}$; Trump relied on self-funding + free media.
• Primary vs. General Strategy
  • Primary: multiple same-party candidates ⇒ emphasise name ID & issue differentiation; ads rarely mention party.
  • General: mobilise base + persuade independents; negative & emotion-based ads; GOTV operations crucial (e.g., Bush $2004$ Ohio ground game).
  • Shadow campaigns & super PACs can run independent negative spots (e.g., Swift Boat $2004$).
• Technology & Media
  • TV ads from $1952$ onward; evolution from jingles to contrast/attack spots.
  • “Stand by your ad” BCRA provision.
  • Soft-news/infotainment appearances (Daily Show, Colbert, late-night) reach <45 demographic.
  • Internet tools: websites $2000+$, e-fundraising (Howard Dean $2004$ – $\$200{,}000$ turkey-sandwich webcast), micro-targeted social-media ads.
• Voter Decision Shortcuts
  • Party ID → straight-ticket option in some states (MI example); reduces ballot fatigue.
  • Demographics/Appearance: age, race, gender, attractiveness correlate with competence cues.
  • Issue Voting:
  • Single-issue (abortion, 2A).
  • Retrospective vs. Prospective vs. Pocketbook.
  • Strategic (support 2nd-choice to block opponent).
• Incumbency Advantage
  • Win rates: House >90\%, Senate $\approx82\%$ ($2014$).
  • Drivers: name recognition, war chests, franking privileges, casework, existing organisations.
  • Gerrymandering: district lines engineered for partisan safety; aids House/legislative incumbents, not statewide races.

7.5 Direct Democracy

• Forms
  • Initiative/Proposition: citizens draft law or constitutional amendment; bypass legislature.
  • Referendum:
  • Legislative referendum: legislature refers measure to voters.
  • Popular referendum: citizens petition to repeal existing law.
  • Recall: voters remove office-holder (e.g., CA Gov. Gray Davis $2003$; WI Gov. Walker survived $2012$ recall $\$60\text{M}$ spent).
• Geographic Distribution
  • Most prevalent in post-Civil-War western states; rare in South/East.
• Initiative Process (state-specific)
  • File text; legal/financial review (AG, Lt. Gov, etc.).
  • Collect signatures: thresholds often % of last gubernatorial vote.
  • CA $5\%$ (statute) / $8\%$ (amendment): $365{,}880$ / $585{,}407$ signatures (based on $2014$ vote).
  • Verification & ballot placement; campaigns for/against.
  • Timing strategy: complex fiscal measures on low-turnout primaries; moral issues on general ballots.
• Pros & Cons
  • Pros: bypass gridlock; majority rule on salient issues (e.g., CO Amendment 64 marijuana legalization). Enhances civic engagement.
  • Cons: voter information burden → ballot drop-off; confusion (CA Prop 8 $2008$ same-sex marriage voting errors).
  • Risk of capture by wealth/special interests (Darrell Issa $\$2\text{M}$ bankrolled CA recall signature drive).
  • Conflicts with federal law (state marijuana vs. CSA).

Key Numerical & Legal Highlights (Quick Reference)

• $24\text{M}$ registrations obsolete (Pew).
• $538$ electoral votes → victory threshold $270$.
• Individual $→$ candidate limit $\$2{,}700$ per election; super PAC $\infty$ independent spend.
• Same-Day Registration ↑ turnout $\approx4\%$.
• Women turnout $\approx4\text{–}10$ points higher than men (recent cycles).
• Automatic registration: Oregon $2015$ first.
• Turnout $2012$: $60\%$ VEP, $57\%$ VAP, $87\%$ registered.
• Incumbent reelection >90\% (House) vs. $82\%$ (Senate $2014$).

Concept Glossary (selected)

• $\textit{Ballot fatigue}$ – skipping lower-ballot items.
• $\textit{Front-loading}$ – states moving primaries earlier.
• $\textit{Shadow campaign}$ – independent spending effort not coordinated with candidate.
• $\textit{Coattail / Reverse-coattail}$ – down-ballot ride / drag from top-ticket performance.
• $\textit{Gerrymandering}$ – district manipulation for partisan or incumbent gain.
• $\textit{Super PAC}$ – Independent Expenditure-Only Committee; unlimited , no coordination.
• \textit{Faithless elector}$$ – Electoral-College member voting contrary to state popular vote.