AP Gov Unit 5 – Political Participation


Voting Rights – Expansions

  • 15th Amendment:

    • Granted African American men the right to vote.

    • Prohibits denial of voting rights based on race.

  • 17th Amendment:

    • Established the direct election of senators by voters instead of by state legislatures.

  • 19th Amendment:

    • Granted women the right to vote.

  • 24th Amendment:

    • Eliminated poll taxes in federal elections.

  • 26th Amendment:

    • Lowered the voting age to 18 years.

  • Voting Rights Act of 1965:

    • Outlawed literacy tests.

    • Allowed for federal oversight of elections in states with a history of discriminatory practices.

  • Motor Voter Law (1993):

    • Allowed voter registration at the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) and other public agencies.

    • Intended to increase accessibility to voting.

Models of Voting Behavior

  • Rational-choice voting:

    • Defined as voting based on personal benefits.

    • Example: Voting for a candidate who promises lower taxes.

  • Retrospective voting:

    • Defined as voting based on an evaluation of a candidate's past performance.

    • Example: Re-electing a president because the economy has improved under their leadership.

  • Prospective voting:

    • Defined as voting based on a candidate’s future promises and potential policies.

    • Example: Supporting a candidate's climate change initiatives.

  • Party-line voting:

    • Defined as voting strictly for candidates of one political party.

    • Example: Consistently voting Democrat or Republican only.

Governing of Elections Function

  • Level Responsibilities:

    • State:

    • Set times and locations for elections.

    • Draw electoral districts.

    • Enforce civil rights laws pertaining to voting.

    • Federal:

    • Certify election results.

    • Set the federal election date.

    • Implement campaign finance laws and ballot formats.

Key Terms

  • Demographics:

    • Refers to characteristics such as age, race, gender, and income levels.

  • Political Efficacy:

    • Belief that individual participation in politics matters and can influence the political process.

  • Electorate:

    • Refers to all eligible voters.

Demographics Trends

  • Group and Party Trend:

    • Men: Predominantly Republican.

    • Women: Predominantly Democrat.

    • White: Predominantly Republican.

    • Non-White: Predominantly Democrat.

    • College-educated individuals: Predominantly Democrat.

    • High school graduates: Predominantly Republican.

    • Professionals: Predominantly Democrat.

    • White collar: Mixed party preferences.

    • Manual labor: Predominantly Republican.

    • Union members: Predominantly Democrat.

    • Under 30: Predominantly Democrat.

    • Ages 30–49: Mixed party preferences.

    • Ages 50+: Predominantly Republican.

    • Religious affiliations:

    • Protestants: Predominantly Republican.

    • Catholics: Mixed party preferences.

    • Regional variations:

      • East: Predominantly Democrat.

      • Midwest: Mixed party preferences.

      • South: Predominantly Republican.

      • West: Predominantly Democrat.

Voter Choice Factors

  • Party identification:

    • Considered the strongest and most influential factor; reflects long-term loyalty to a party.

  • Ideological orientation:

    • Refers to liberal vs conservative beliefs impacting voting decisions.

  • Candidate characteristics:

    • Traits such as charisma, experience, and background can sway voter preferences.

  • Contemporary issues:

    • Factors such as the economy, war, and social issues affect voting behavior.

  • Demographics:

    • Factors like religion, race, and gender influence voter preferences.

Big Idea #2: Linkage Institution

  • Definition: Structures that connect individuals to the government.

  • 4 Main Linkage Institutions:

    1. Political Parties:

      • Organize elections and recruit candidates.

    2. Interest Groups:

      • Advocate for specific policies.

    3. Elections:

      • Provide a mechanism for citizens to select their leaders.

    4. Media:

      • Inform and shape public opinion.

Political Party Roles

  • Mobilization:

    • Encourage voter participation.

  • Platforms:

    • Outline the beliefs and policies of the party.

  • Candidate recruitment:

    • Search for and support candidates for elections.

  • Campaign management:

    • Involves fundraising, advertisement strategies, and overall campaign strategy.

  • Government organization:

    • Includes leadership roles within Congress.

Key Terms

  • Critical Election:

    • An election that leads to a significant political shift.

  • Regional Realignment:

    • Refers to shifts in party dominance in particular regions.

  • Realignment:

    • Long-term shifts in party coalitions.

  • Divided Government:

    • Occurs when different parties control different branches of government.

Critical Elections: Historical Examples

  • 1860: Acceptance of the Republican party (Lincoln's rise) correlating with the onset of the Civil War.

  • 1896: Transition towards an economically dominant industrial society.

  • 1932: Emergence of the New Deal coalition leading to Democratic dominance.

Third Parties

  • Issue with Winner-take-all Voting:

    • The electoral system leads to limited representation for third parties since only the top candidate wins electoral votes.

  • Examples of Third Parties:

    • Libertarian Party, Green Party.

Political Parties vs Interest Groups Function

  • Political Parties:

    • Pick candidates, run campaigns, give cues to voters, articulate policy, educate the electorate, coordinate policy.

  • Interest Groups:

    • Mobilize pressure for certain policies, draft legislation, and lobby Congress.

Iron Triangle Dynamics

  1. Interest groups lobby Congress.

  2. Congress supports interest groups in laws or funding.

  3. Congress controls funding for bureaucracies.

  4. Bureaucracy favors Congress members.

  5. Bureaucracy favors interest groups.

  6. Interest groups lobby bureaucracy for favorable regulations and policies.

Interest Group Challenges

  • Inequality of resources: Wealthy interest groups have more influence on lobbying and policy-making.

  • Unequal access: Some groups have easier access to officials, creating disparities.

  • Free rider problem: Individuals benefit from group efforts without contributing.

  • Single-issue groups: Focused on specific issues providing them with strong influence.

  • Social movements: Efforts towards broad societal change, including protest movements which exert direct pressure on the government.

Big Idea #3 – Elections

  • Presidential Terms:

    • Discusses the incumbency advantage where current officeholders have recognition and established resources.

  • Types of Primaries:

    • Open primary: Any voter can participate, regardless of party affiliation.

    • Closed primary: Only registered party members can vote.

  • Caucuses:

    • Local meetings held to select candidates for elections.

  • Party conventions:

    • Officially nominate candidates.

  • Electoral College:

    • Primary system in place for electing the president.

      • Votes needed to win: 270 electoral votes.

      • Most states have a winner-take-all system, where the candidate with a majority wins all electoral votes, except for Maine and Nebraska which use proportional distribution.

    • Discusses the potential mismatch between popular votes and electoral votes: A candidate can win the popular vote in a few states but lose overall due to the electoral vote distribution, as defined in the Constitution (Article II and the 12th Amendment).

  • Congressional Elections:

    • Focuses on the incumbency advantage leading to high reelection rates.

    • Elections are categorized into primaries (to select party candidates) and general elections (final election).

    • Discusses midterm elections which typically lead to opposition gains.

PACs and Campaign Finance

  • PACs (Political Action Committees):

    • Organizations that raise and distribute funds to candidates.

  • Super PACs:

    • Organizations that can spend unlimited money under the premise of independent spending without direct coordination with candidates.

  • Soft money:

    • Unregulated donations to parties.

  • Hard money:

    • Regulated contributions to candidates.

  • Issue ads:

    • Advertising about specific issues rather than candidates themselves.

Campaign Finance Laws

  • Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (2002):

    • Banned the use of soft money and limited advertising directly related to elections.

  • Citizens United v. FEC (2010):

    • Ruling that allowed unlimited independent spending, justified on the grounds of free speech under the First Amendment.

Big Idea #4 – Media

Types of Media

  • Investigative journalism:

    • In-depth research aimed to uncover issues, such as governmental corruption.

  • Election coverage:

    • Media reporting focused on campaigns and candidates.

  • Political commentary:

    • Opinion-based analysis and discussions about political issues.

  • Horse race journalism:

    • Coverage focusing on the competitiveness and winners of elections rather than the substantive aspects of candidates or their policies.

Journalism Types Table

Journalism Type

Description

Facts

Election coverage

Talk shows

Commentary

Opinions

Political commentary

Long research

Investigative journalism

Horse race

Focused on winners

Media & Participation

  • Roles of Media:

    • Informs voters about issues and candidates.

    • Shapes public opinion through various platforms.

    • Encourages increased voter turnout.

    • Can introduce biases into voter perceptions.

Media Bias + Technology

  • More media options lead to selective exposure, where individuals choose media that align with their beliefs.

  • Partisan news reinforces existing beliefs, potentially increasing polarization.

  • Social media:

    • Facilitates rapid information dissemination as well as the spread of misinformation, raising questions about source credibility.

Impact on Democracy

  • Increased media choices lead individuals to select like-minded sources, contributing to ideological segregation.

  • Consumer-driven media:

    • Results in the formation of echo chambers where individuals are exposed primarily to confirmatory information.

  • There is an increase in the uncertainty regarding the credibility of sources leading to widespread misinformation and distrust in the media.