In 1755, the British launched an expedition to Fort Duquesne (modern-day Pittsburgh).
General Edward Braddock commanded approximately 2,300 troops and militias, with Lieutenant Colonel George Washington serving as aide-de-camp and guide.
Braddock's actions alienated some Native American allies, leading many to side with the French.
The expedition was ambushed by French forces at the Monongahela River, resulting in Braddock's death and Washington's leadership during the withdrawal.
Key Events
Over the next two years, the French achieved several victories in the war.
The British faced significant setbacks and were pushed back deep into their colonies.
In 1757, Britain allied with Prussia to hold their ground against French and Spanish forces in Europe.
Britain began an offensive campaign in North America, which became a turning point in the war.
Britain captured pivotal French forts and seized almost all of the French Caribbean.
A significant battle during this period was the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759.
British Victory = End of New France
The Treaty of Paris (1763) marked the end of the war.
France ceded Canada to Britain, while Guadeloupe and Martinique were returned to France.
Spain ceded Florida to Britain and received the Philippines and Cuba in return.
Spain acquired the western territory of Louisiana, including New Orleans.
Britain gained control of the Louisiana Territory east of the Mississippi River.
Costs
The victory in the war came at a significant financial cost.
France entered a 30-year financial crisis due to the war's fallout.
Britain increased taxes to cover its war debts.
Warfare continued in newly acquired British territories, including Pontiac’s War (1763–1766).
Proclamation of 1763
This proclamation prohibited further colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains.
It acknowledged the land rights of Indigenous peoples in the region.
The sale of such lands to private individuals was banned; only colonial governments were permitted to arrange land purchases.
The overarching goal was to stabilize relationships between colonists and Native Americans.
Colonial Identities
The Albany Plan of Union (1754) proposed by Benjamin Franklin aimed to create a Grand Council composed of delegates from the colonies to levy taxes and manage Indian affairs.
The plan was rejected by the colonial assemblies.
After the French and Indian War, a heightened sense of collective identity emerged among the colonies along with a common cause regarding their rights.
There was an increase in both British and colonial pride alongside the challenges posed by an expanded empire.
The Crisis Begins
Changes in the Empire
King George III assumed the throne of Great Britain in 1760.
He adopted a parental-like relationship with the colonies, emphasizing obedience and discipline.
The King suffered from mental health issues, including mania and depression.
The post-war period saw a considerable national debt (£150 million) and increased troop deployments to secure the empire.
This initiated a changing identity within the colonies as they reacted to increased control from Britain.
Treatment of the Colonies
The colonies went from being allies during the French and Indian War to being treated as subordinate entities.
There was a perceived ingratitude from the colonies regarding the support received during the war.
Colonies were expected to pay off debts accrued due to defense expenses.
The doctrine of virtual representation was introduced, asserting that Members of Parliament represented all British subjects, not just their districts.
The implementation of writs of assistance (general search warrants) was enforced to combat smuggling.
Taxing the Colonies
Sugar Act of 1764: reduced the import tax on molasses and strengthened anti-smuggling legislation, mandating that trade be conducted through England.
Currency Act: prohibited colonial assemblies from issuing paper currency as legal tender.
Stamp Act of 1765
This act imposed a direct tax on all printed materials within the colonies, including newspapers, books, court documents, commercial papers, land deeds, and almanacs.
It marked the first direct tax imposed by Britain on the colonies rather than a regulation of trade.
The act was aimed at financing British operations in North America and supporting the presence of British troops.
Stamp Act Reaction
The Stamp Act generated widespread discontent among colonists, notably affecting literate and business communities.
The rallying cry of “No taxation without representation” emerged, signaling a crucial political stance against taxation without consent.
Key proponents of resistance included Patrick Henry, who argued for the liberties enjoyed by Englishmen and rejected the imposed taxes without consent.
The Stamp Act Congress of October 1765 included 27 delegates from 9 colonies, endorsing Virginia’s position and expressing loyalty to the crown paired with demands for consent to taxation.
Liberty, Resistance, and Politics
The concept of “Liberty Trees,” “Liberty Halls,” and “Liberty Poles” became symbols of resistance against British authority.
Political demonstrations included public ‘funerals’ and ‘resurrections’ to dramatize colonial grievances.
The Committee of Correspondence was established in Boston prior to the Stamp Act, later spreading inter-colonial communication to oppose tax acts.
Prominent figures like John Adams inspired action through their speeches and writings encouraging opposition to British tax policies.
Liberty, Resistance, and Politics Continued
Political demonstrations involved the intimidation of tax collectors.
The Sons of Liberty emerged as enforcers of the boycott against British goods, advocating for “Liberty, Property, and No Stamps.”
The movement drew widespread support from the middle and lower classes, who actively targeted tax collectors.
Parliamentary Response to the Stamp Act
The Stamp Act was repealed in 1766 due to pressure from wealthy merchants in the colonies.
However, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act, asserting its right to legislate for the colonies “in all cases whatsoever,” maintaining its authority despite colonial resistance.
This sparked an ongoing promise of further conflict as British debt continued to be a pressing issue.
The Road to Revolution
The Townshend Acts (1767)
Under Chancellor of the Exchequer Charles Townshend, new taxes were imposed on imported goods such as glass, lead, paint, paper, and tea.
The Townshend Acts created a new board of customs commissioners to collect taxes and suppress smuggling.
Boycotts and Resistance
The abolishment of the Townshend Acts led to colonists reinitiating boycotts on British imports, encouraging reliance on American-made goods.
The Daughters of Liberty contributed to these efforts by creating their own products, promoting patriotic actions through public spinning and weaving activities.
The Boston Massacre
In 1768, approximately 2,000 British troops occupied Boston, a city of 15,000 residents.
On March 5, 1770, a mob confronted the troops, throwing snowballs, rocks, and coal, culminating in troops opening fire and resulting in 5 civilian deaths.
Crispus Attucks became recognized as the first martyr of the American Revolution.
Paul Revere depicted the event as “The Bloody Massacre” in his propaganda.
Troops on Trial
The British troops involved in the Boston Massacre were put on trial, with John Adams brave enough to represent them to ensure their right to a fair trial, arguing self-defense against an unruly mob.
The verdict was relatively lenient: Captain Thomas Preston was acquitted, and several soldiers faced lighter sentences.
The Tea Act
The East India Company faced economic hardship and introduced low-quality tea into the American market at reduced prices along with rebates and tax exemptions.
This undercut local merchants and smugglers while maintaining revenue for the British government.
The Boston Tea Party
On December 16, 1773, colonists disguised as Native Americans boarded tea ships in Boston Harbor, dumping 300 chests of tea into the water as a direct action against the Tea Act, leading to a $4 million financial loss today.
The Intolerable Acts (1774)
In response to the Boston Tea Party, Parliament passed punitive measures known as the Intolerable Acts, which:
Closed Boston Harbor.
Rewrote the Massachusetts Charter.
Required lodging soldiers in private homes.
These acts united the colonies in opposition against a perceived direct threat to their political freedoms and catalyzed revolutionary sentiments.
The Coming of Independence
The (First) Continental Congress
The First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia from September to October 1774 to coordinate resistance across the colonies.
Delegates from 12 of the mainland colonies attended (excluding Georgia), including prominent figures like John Adams, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson.
The Congress aimed to halt trade with Great Britain and raise local Committees of Safety and planned a second meeting for May 1775.
The Outbreak of War
The Battles of Lexington and Concord occurred on April 18/19, 1775, marking the first conflict of the Revolutionary War.
British troops aimed for the disarmament and arrest of Samuel Adams and John Hancock, signaling the start of armed resistance.
Paul Revere famously rode to warn the colonial militias, stating, “One if by land, two if by sea.”
The confrontation at Lexington was epitomized by the phrase “The Shot Heard ‘Round the World.”
Initial Battles and Strategy
American forces achieved a significant victory at Fort Ticonderoga, New York, in May 1775 under the leadership of Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold.
The Battle of Bunker Hill (Breed’s Hill) on June 17, 1775, was noted for heavy British casualties, instilling confidence among American troops despite being a tactical British victory.
The cannons obtained from Fort Ticonderoga were instrumental in driving British forces out of Boston in March 1776.
A Divided Nation
Not all colonies were ready to support full separation; New England and Virginia were more supportive, while urban centers often leaned loyalist.
The Second Continental Congress
The Second Continental Congress convened in May 1775, establishing the Continental Army in June with George Washington appointed as Commander-in-Chief.
The Congress issued currency, borrowed money, and proposed an Olive Branch Petition as an appeal to King George III, which was ultimately rejected.
Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation stated that enslaved individuals who fought for the British would gain their freedom, complicating the war effort.
Common Sense
Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense was significant in mobilizing public sentiment for independence.
In it, he articulated the grievances against the king, the nature of tyranny, and the need for a written constitution to safeguard rights.
Paine emphasized liberty as a universal cause, appealing to a wide audience among the colonists.
The Declaration of Independence
Initial Steps Toward Independence
On June 7, 1776, a resolution for independence was proposed.
A committee was formed to draft the Declaration on June 11, consisting of Jefferson, Adams, and Franklin.
The draft was submitted on June 28, with unanimous approval required from all colonies.
The Resolution of Independence was passed on July 2, followed by adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.
Key Components of the Declaration
The document was declared to be the unanimous decision by the thirteen united states of America, asserting the right to separate from Britain when political bonds become destructive to rights.
The Preamble famously begins with the statement: “We hold these truths to be self-evident…” and outlines the foundational concepts of unalienable rights (life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness).
It emphasizes the principle of Popular Sovereignty, stating that governments derive their power from the consent of the governed and asserting the right to revolt against oppressive regimes.
List of Grievances
The Declaration contains a detailed list of grievances against King George III, framed as an indictment justifying the desire for independence. Notable complaints include:
Imposing taxes without consent.
Denying local laws and trial by jury.
Quartering troops in private homes.
Restricting trade and immigration.
Omitted Slavery Grievance
An original grievance against slavery included in Jefferson’s draft was removed due to objections from South Carolina and Georgia, who feared its impact on their slave-based economies.
The omitted text condemned the king’s support for the slave trade and his actions against the rights of others.
Denunciation of the British People
The Declaration acknowledged prior appeals to British citizens for support and justice, emphasizing that the grievances centered on the British government rather than the populace.
Resolution of Independence
The document formally declares the United Colonies as free and independent states, dissolving all political connections to Great Britain.
It grants the newly independent states the full powers of war, peace, alliances, and other actions typical of independent nations.
Signatures
The Declaration was signed by representatives of the thirteen states, who pledged allegiance to one another and to their cause, invoking divine providence in their endeavors.
Noteworthy signers included John Hancock (whose name was famously bold) and Thomas Jefferson, who was notably younger than many other signers, at just 33.
A Changed Meaning of Freedom
The notion of freedom transformed from being defined as the rights of Englishmen to encompassing the rights of all mankind.
This redefinition of liberty included the belief in natural law and established a framework for how freedom would be understood moving forward, reinforcing the idea of “American Exceptionalism.”
Securing Independence
The Balance of Power
Great Britain maintained the most powerful military in the world with well-trained and seasoned forces, including mercenaries.
The misjudgments by British commanders and the emergence of new European enemies provided openings for the Continental Army and local militias to exploit.
Between 1775 and 1783, approximately 200,000 men served in the Continental Army, with a high mortality rate, indicating the war's severe human cost.
African Americans & the Revolution
Many enslaved individuals seized the opportunity for freedom through military service, with around 5,000 black men enlisting in various colonial forces.
The British also extended enlistment opportunities, leading roughly 20,000 enslaved men to fight for them in hopes of gaining freedom post-war.
Notable military units included Dunmore’s Ethiopian Regiment.
Native America & the Revolution
About 200,000 Native Americans lived east of the Mississippi River and their allegiances during the war were influenced by pragmatic considerations.
Most Native nations sided with the British; notable exceptions included the Catawbas and Oneidas, who chose neutrality or attempted to negotiate alliances.
The First Years of the War
British commanders advanced cautiously, leading to mixed results for American forces, which consistently avoided direct confrontation without adequate reinforcements.
Washington took significant loss after loss while managing to retain morale among his troops, but by winter of 1776, his army had dwindled to about 3,000 men.
The American Crisis
Thomas Paine’s essay, The American Crisis, written during a tough winter, famously opened with “These are the times that try men's souls…” and rallied support for the cause, boosting morale for troops.
Crossing the Delaware River
On December 25/26, 1776, Washington executed a daring nocturnal crossing of the icy Delaware River to surprise the Hessians in Trenton, achieving a valued victory.
This tactic revitalized the colonial forces and was followed by another vital win against the British at Princeton.
Saratoga to Valley Forge
During the summer of 1777, a significant British Army aimed to unite with General Howe’s forces in New York, but were intercepted and defeated at Saratoga in October, a turning point in the war.
The Continental Army faced dire conditions at Valley Forge during the winter of 1777-78, marked by a lack of supplies and high desertion rates.
Training under figures like Baron von Steuben helped to improve discipline and effectiveness.
Global War
The Treaty of Amity and Commerce with France recognized the United States and brought military assistance from French forces, altering the war's dynamics.
The Spanish and Dutch also joined the conflict against Britain, complicating British military objectives.
The War in the South
By 1778, the British shifted their military focus to the South, trying to exploit loyalties and civilian tensions.
Major cities like Savannah and Charleston were captured, but consolidating control proved difficult due to prevalent local resistance and civil strife.
Figures like Francis Marion, dubbed the 'Swamp Fox,' used guerrilla tactics to challenge British operations.
The War’s Nadir
1780 marked a low point for the American Revolution, with Congress facing bankruptcy, the army remaining unpaid, and a series of British victories.
The defect of Benedict Arnold to the British showcased vulnerabilities within the American cause.
Turning Points
Key American victories at Cowpens, SC (January 1781) and Guilford Courthouse, NC (March 1781) helped regain momentum in the war.
Cornwallis was forced to retreat to Yorktown, Virginia, where he was subsequently surrounded by American and French forces.
The Siege of Yorktown
The Siege of Yorktown occurred between September 28 and October 19, 1781, with US and French forces entrenched around British positions.
Cornwallis ultimately surrendered, resulting in the capture of approximately 8,000 British troops and a significant shift in public support for the war effort in London.
Post-Yorktown
Following the victory at Yorktown, major campaigns ceased, but localized skirmishes continued.
Negotiations for peace began in Paris in April 1782, with tensions remaining high amid ongoing conflicts.
The Treaty of Paris
Negotiations concluded in September 1783, with American representatives John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay securing favorable terms.
Recognized American independence and ceded land claims east of the Mississippi River while retaining fishing rights off the Canadian coast, setting a framework for post-war America.
The War for Independence
The Revolutionary War ultimately represented a quest for autonomy not just from British control but as a foundational moment reshaping the notions of liberty and rights in the emerging United States.