The American Revolution

The American Revolution, 1763-1783

Agenda

  • The French & Indian War
  • The Crisis Begins
  • The Road to Revolution
  • The Coming of Independence
  • The Declaration
  • Securing Independence

The French & Indian War

The War Begins
  • In 1755, the British launched an expedition to Fort Duquesne (modern-day Pittsburgh).
  • General Edward Braddock commanded approximately 2,300 troops and militias, with Lieutenant Colonel George Washington serving as aide-de-camp and guide.
  • Braddock's actions alienated some Native American allies, leading many to side with the French.
  • The expedition was ambushed by French forces at the Monongahela River, resulting in Braddock's death and Washington's leadership during the withdrawal.
Key Events
  • Over the next two years, the French achieved several victories in the war.
  • The British faced significant setbacks and were pushed back deep into their colonies.
  • In 1757, Britain allied with Prussia to hold their ground against French and Spanish forces in Europe.
  • Britain began an offensive campaign in North America, which became a turning point in the war.
  • Britain captured pivotal French forts and seized almost all of the French Caribbean.
  • A significant battle during this period was the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759.
British Victory = End of New France
  • The Treaty of Paris (1763) marked the end of the war.
  • France ceded Canada to Britain, while Guadeloupe and Martinique were returned to France.
  • Spain ceded Florida to Britain and received the Philippines and Cuba in return.
  • Spain acquired the western territory of Louisiana, including New Orleans.
  • Britain gained control of the Louisiana Territory east of the Mississippi River.
Costs
  • The victory in the war came at a significant financial cost.
  • France entered a 30-year financial crisis due to the war's fallout.
  • Britain increased taxes to cover its war debts.
  • Warfare continued in newly acquired British territories, including Pontiac’s War (1763–1766).
Proclamation of 1763
  • This proclamation prohibited further colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains.
  • It acknowledged the land rights of Indigenous peoples in the region.
  • The sale of such lands to private individuals was banned; only colonial governments were permitted to arrange land purchases.
  • The overarching goal was to stabilize relationships between colonists and Native Americans.
Colonial Identities
  • The Albany Plan of Union (1754) proposed by Benjamin Franklin aimed to create a Grand Council composed of delegates from the colonies to levy taxes and manage Indian affairs.
  • The plan was rejected by the colonial assemblies.
  • After the French and Indian War, a heightened sense of collective identity emerged among the colonies along with a common cause regarding their rights.
  • There was an increase in both British and colonial pride alongside the challenges posed by an expanded empire.

The Crisis Begins

Changes in the Empire
  • King George III assumed the throne of Great Britain in 1760.
  • He adopted a parental-like relationship with the colonies, emphasizing obedience and discipline.
  • The King suffered from mental health issues, including mania and depression.
  • The post-war period saw a considerable national debt (£150 million) and increased troop deployments to secure the empire.
  • This initiated a changing identity within the colonies as they reacted to increased control from Britain.
Treatment of the Colonies
  • The colonies went from being allies during the French and Indian War to being treated as subordinate entities.
  • There was a perceived ingratitude from the colonies regarding the support received during the war.
  • Colonies were expected to pay off debts accrued due to defense expenses.
  • The doctrine of virtual representation was introduced, asserting that Members of Parliament represented all British subjects, not just their districts.
  • The implementation of writs of assistance (general search warrants) was enforced to combat smuggling.
Taxing the Colonies
  • Sugar Act of 1764: reduced the import tax on molasses and strengthened anti-smuggling legislation, mandating that trade be conducted through England.
  • Currency Act: prohibited colonial assemblies from issuing paper currency as legal tender.
Stamp Act of 1765
  • This act imposed a direct tax on all printed materials within the colonies, including newspapers, books, court documents, commercial papers, land deeds, and almanacs.
  • It marked the first direct tax imposed by Britain on the colonies rather than a regulation of trade.
  • The act was aimed at financing British operations in North America and supporting the presence of British troops.
Stamp Act Reaction
  • The Stamp Act generated widespread discontent among colonists, notably affecting literate and business communities.
  • The rallying cry of “No taxation without representation” emerged, signaling a crucial political stance against taxation without consent.
  • Key proponents of resistance included Patrick Henry, who argued for the liberties enjoyed by Englishmen and rejected the imposed taxes without consent.
  • The Stamp Act Congress of October 1765 included 27 delegates from 9 colonies, endorsing Virginia’s position and expressing loyalty to the crown paired with demands for consent to taxation.
Liberty, Resistance, and Politics
  • The concept of “Liberty Trees,” “Liberty Halls,” and “Liberty Poles” became symbols of resistance against British authority.
  • Political demonstrations included public ‘funerals’ and ‘resurrections’ to dramatize colonial grievances.
  • The Committee of Correspondence was established in Boston prior to the Stamp Act, later spreading inter-colonial communication to oppose tax acts.
  • Prominent figures like John Adams inspired action through their speeches and writings encouraging opposition to British tax policies.
Liberty, Resistance, and Politics Continued
  • Political demonstrations involved the intimidation of tax collectors.
  • The Sons of Liberty emerged as enforcers of the boycott against British goods, advocating for “Liberty, Property, and No Stamps.”
  • The movement drew widespread support from the middle and lower classes, who actively targeted tax collectors.
Parliamentary Response to the Stamp Act
  • The Stamp Act was repealed in 1766 due to pressure from wealthy merchants in the colonies.
  • However, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act, asserting its right to legislate for the colonies “in all cases whatsoever,” maintaining its authority despite colonial resistance.
  • This sparked an ongoing promise of further conflict as British debt continued to be a pressing issue.

The Road to Revolution

The Townshend Acts (1767)
  • Under Chancellor of the Exchequer Charles Townshend, new taxes were imposed on imported goods such as glass, lead, paint, paper, and tea.
  • The Townshend Acts created a new board of customs commissioners to collect taxes and suppress smuggling.
Boycotts and Resistance
  • The abolishment of the Townshend Acts led to colonists reinitiating boycotts on British imports, encouraging reliance on American-made goods.
  • The Daughters of Liberty contributed to these efforts by creating their own products, promoting patriotic actions through public spinning and weaving activities.
The Boston Massacre
  • In 1768, approximately 2,000 British troops occupied Boston, a city of 15,000 residents.
  • On March 5, 1770, a mob confronted the troops, throwing snowballs, rocks, and coal, culminating in troops opening fire and resulting in 5 civilian deaths.
  • Crispus Attucks became recognized as the first martyr of the American Revolution.
  • Paul Revere depicted the event as “The Bloody Massacre” in his propaganda.
Troops on Trial
  • The British troops involved in the Boston Massacre were put on trial, with John Adams brave enough to represent them to ensure their right to a fair trial, arguing self-defense against an unruly mob.
  • The verdict was relatively lenient: Captain Thomas Preston was acquitted, and several soldiers faced lighter sentences.
The Tea Act
  • The East India Company faced economic hardship and introduced low-quality tea into the American market at reduced prices along with rebates and tax exemptions.
  • This undercut local merchants and smugglers while maintaining revenue for the British government.
The Boston Tea Party
  • On December 16, 1773, colonists disguised as Native Americans boarded tea ships in Boston Harbor, dumping 300 chests of tea into the water as a direct action against the Tea Act, leading to a $4 million financial loss today.
The Intolerable Acts (1774)
  • In response to the Boston Tea Party, Parliament passed punitive measures known as the Intolerable Acts, which:
    • Closed Boston Harbor.
    • Rewrote the Massachusetts Charter.
    • Required lodging soldiers in private homes.
  • These acts united the colonies in opposition against a perceived direct threat to their political freedoms and catalyzed revolutionary sentiments.

The Coming of Independence

The (First) Continental Congress
  • The First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia from September to October 1774 to coordinate resistance across the colonies.
  • Delegates from 12 of the mainland colonies attended (excluding Georgia), including prominent figures like John Adams, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson.
  • The Congress aimed to halt trade with Great Britain and raise local Committees of Safety and planned a second meeting for May 1775.
The Outbreak of War
  • The Battles of Lexington and Concord occurred on April 18/19, 1775, marking the first conflict of the Revolutionary War.
  • British troops aimed for the disarmament and arrest of Samuel Adams and John Hancock, signaling the start of armed resistance.
  • Paul Revere famously rode to warn the colonial militias, stating, “One if by land, two if by sea.”
  • The confrontation at Lexington was epitomized by the phrase “The Shot Heard ‘Round the World.”
Initial Battles and Strategy
  • American forces achieved a significant victory at Fort Ticonderoga, New York, in May 1775 under the leadership of Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold.
  • The Battle of Bunker Hill (Breed’s Hill) on June 17, 1775, was noted for heavy British casualties, instilling confidence among American troops despite being a tactical British victory.
  • The cannons obtained from Fort Ticonderoga were instrumental in driving British forces out of Boston in March 1776.
A Divided Nation
  • Not all colonies were ready to support full separation; New England and Virginia were more supportive, while urban centers often leaned loyalist.
The Second Continental Congress
  • The Second Continental Congress convened in May 1775, establishing the Continental Army in June with George Washington appointed as Commander-in-Chief.
  • The Congress issued currency, borrowed money, and proposed an Olive Branch Petition as an appeal to King George III, which was ultimately rejected.
  • Lord Dunmore’s Proclamation stated that enslaved individuals who fought for the British would gain their freedom, complicating the war effort.
Common Sense
  • Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense was significant in mobilizing public sentiment for independence.
  • In it, he articulated the grievances against the king, the nature of tyranny, and the need for a written constitution to safeguard rights.
  • Paine emphasized liberty as a universal cause, appealing to a wide audience among the colonists.

The Declaration of Independence

Initial Steps Toward Independence
  • On June 7, 1776, a resolution for independence was proposed.
  • A committee was formed to draft the Declaration on June 11, consisting of Jefferson, Adams, and Franklin.
  • The draft was submitted on June 28, with unanimous approval required from all colonies.
  • The Resolution of Independence was passed on July 2, followed by adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.
Key Components of the Declaration
  • The document was declared to be the unanimous decision by the thirteen united states of America, asserting the right to separate from Britain when political bonds become destructive to rights.
  • The Preamble famously begins with the statement: “We hold these truths to be self-evident…” and outlines the foundational concepts of unalienable rights (life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness).
  • It emphasizes the principle of Popular Sovereignty, stating that governments derive their power from the consent of the governed and asserting the right to revolt against oppressive regimes.
List of Grievances
  • The Declaration contains a detailed list of grievances against King George III, framed as an indictment justifying the desire for independence. Notable complaints include:
    • Imposing taxes without consent.
    • Denying local laws and trial by jury.
    • Quartering troops in private homes.
    • Restricting trade and immigration.
Omitted Slavery Grievance
  • An original grievance against slavery included in Jefferson’s draft was removed due to objections from South Carolina and Georgia, who feared its impact on their slave-based economies.
  • The omitted text condemned the king’s support for the slave trade and his actions against the rights of others.
Denunciation of the British People
  • The Declaration acknowledged prior appeals to British citizens for support and justice, emphasizing that the grievances centered on the British government rather than the populace.
Resolution of Independence
  • The document formally declares the United Colonies as free and independent states, dissolving all political connections to Great Britain.
  • It grants the newly independent states the full powers of war, peace, alliances, and other actions typical of independent nations.
Signatures
  • The Declaration was signed by representatives of the thirteen states, who pledged allegiance to one another and to their cause, invoking divine providence in their endeavors.
  • Noteworthy signers included John Hancock (whose name was famously bold) and Thomas Jefferson, who was notably younger than many other signers, at just 33.
A Changed Meaning of Freedom
  • The notion of freedom transformed from being defined as the rights of Englishmen to encompassing the rights of all mankind.
  • This redefinition of liberty included the belief in natural law and established a framework for how freedom would be understood moving forward, reinforcing the idea of “American Exceptionalism.”

Securing Independence

The Balance of Power
  • Great Britain maintained the most powerful military in the world with well-trained and seasoned forces, including mercenaries.
  • The misjudgments by British commanders and the emergence of new European enemies provided openings for the Continental Army and local militias to exploit.
  • Between 1775 and 1783, approximately 200,000 men served in the Continental Army, with a high mortality rate, indicating the war's severe human cost.
African Americans & the Revolution
  • Many enslaved individuals seized the opportunity for freedom through military service, with around 5,000 black men enlisting in various colonial forces.
  • The British also extended enlistment opportunities, leading roughly 20,000 enslaved men to fight for them in hopes of gaining freedom post-war.
  • Notable military units included Dunmore’s Ethiopian Regiment.
Native America & the Revolution
  • About 200,000 Native Americans lived east of the Mississippi River and their allegiances during the war were influenced by pragmatic considerations.
  • Most Native nations sided with the British; notable exceptions included the Catawbas and Oneidas, who chose neutrality or attempted to negotiate alliances.
The First Years of the War
  • British commanders advanced cautiously, leading to mixed results for American forces, which consistently avoided direct confrontation without adequate reinforcements.
  • Washington took significant loss after loss while managing to retain morale among his troops, but by winter of 1776, his army had dwindled to about 3,000 men.
The American Crisis
  • Thomas Paine’s essay, The American Crisis, written during a tough winter, famously opened with “These are the times that try men's souls…” and rallied support for the cause, boosting morale for troops.
Crossing the Delaware River
  • On December 25/26, 1776, Washington executed a daring nocturnal crossing of the icy Delaware River to surprise the Hessians in Trenton, achieving a valued victory.
  • This tactic revitalized the colonial forces and was followed by another vital win against the British at Princeton.
Saratoga to Valley Forge
  • During the summer of 1777, a significant British Army aimed to unite with General Howe’s forces in New York, but were intercepted and defeated at Saratoga in October, a turning point in the war.
  • The Continental Army faced dire conditions at Valley Forge during the winter of 1777-78, marked by a lack of supplies and high desertion rates.
  • Training under figures like Baron von Steuben helped to improve discipline and effectiveness.
Global War
  • The Treaty of Amity and Commerce with France recognized the United States and brought military assistance from French forces, altering the war's dynamics.
  • The Spanish and Dutch also joined the conflict against Britain, complicating British military objectives.
The War in the South
  • By 1778, the British shifted their military focus to the South, trying to exploit loyalties and civilian tensions.
  • Major cities like Savannah and Charleston were captured, but consolidating control proved difficult due to prevalent local resistance and civil strife.
  • Figures like Francis Marion, dubbed the 'Swamp Fox,' used guerrilla tactics to challenge British operations.
The War’s Nadir
  • 1780 marked a low point for the American Revolution, with Congress facing bankruptcy, the army remaining unpaid, and a series of British victories.
  • The defect of Benedict Arnold to the British showcased vulnerabilities within the American cause.
Turning Points
  • Key American victories at Cowpens, SC (January 1781) and Guilford Courthouse, NC (March 1781) helped regain momentum in the war.
  • Cornwallis was forced to retreat to Yorktown, Virginia, where he was subsequently surrounded by American and French forces.
The Siege of Yorktown
  • The Siege of Yorktown occurred between September 28 and October 19, 1781, with US and French forces entrenched around British positions.
  • Cornwallis ultimately surrendered, resulting in the capture of approximately 8,000 British troops and a significant shift in public support for the war effort in London.
Post-Yorktown
  • Following the victory at Yorktown, major campaigns ceased, but localized skirmishes continued.
  • Negotiations for peace began in Paris in April 1782, with tensions remaining high amid ongoing conflicts.
The Treaty of Paris
  • Negotiations concluded in September 1783, with American representatives John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay securing favorable terms.
  • Recognized American independence and ceded land claims east of the Mississippi River while retaining fishing rights off the Canadian coast, setting a framework for post-war America.
The War for Independence
  • The Revolutionary War ultimately represented a quest for autonomy not just from British control but as a foundational moment reshaping the notions of liberty and rights in the emerging United States.