Parrenas 2
Asian Immigrant Women and Global Restructuring, 1970s-1990s
Introduction
Genny O'Connor's Experience:
A Filipina domestic worker in Los Angeles who left her office job in the Philippines seeking higher pay.
Despite a bachelor's degree, she found only low-wage informal sector work in the U.S. due to lack of documents.
Experienced underemployment and struggled with the transition to domestic work.
Beth Orozo's Experience:
Dreamed of working as a nurse in the United States to support her parents.
In 1992, became a registered nurse in a convalescent hospital, a common path for Philippine nursing graduates.
Works long hours (100 hours every two weeks) to increase her pay but likes her life in the U.S.. Also proud that she can provide for her parents in the Philippines.
Faced challenges, including the Commission on Graduates of Foreign Nursing Schools exam and the State Nursing Board Examination of California.
Considers her migratory experience a success.
Overview of Asian Immigrant Women's Labor Market Experiences:
Post-1965, Asian women migrants include professionals, entrepreneurs, and low-wage workers.
They address labor shortages, fill abandoned labor markets, and provide cheap labor.
Context of Global Economic Restructuring:
Labor migration occurs within the integration of national economies into a single global labor market.
Countries trade goods and services, export products, and depend on multinational corporations and foreign direct investments.
Chapter Focus:
Examines unskilled laborers, entrepreneurs, and professionals.
Argues that these groups provide "cheap labor" to the U.S. economy through low labor costs or substandard employment conditions.
Highlights the shared experience of providing cheap labor as a basis for coalition among diverse classes of immigrant Asian women.
Global Restructuring
Formation of a Decentered Global Labor Market:
Development of a single global market economy leads to multiple consumer markets in different regions and relocation of production.
Relocation of Manufacturing:
Manufacturing moves from advanced capitalist countries to developing and newly industrialized nations.
Domestic producers compete with foreign businesses to reduce production costs.
of U.S. manufacturing is done outside the country.
New Global Division of Labor:
Decline in manufacturing in advanced capitalist nations leads to the emergence of export-oriented economies.
Nations exporting manufactured goods are more likely to achieve rapid economic growth compared to those exporting primary goods.
Globalization and Labor Migration:
Nations export citizens' labor to introduce foreign currency.
The Philippines has seen a steady increase in emigrants since the 1970s.
Early to mid-1970s: Fewer than 50,000 overseas contract workers.
1981: 266,243 workers.
1994: More than 700,000 workers.
Roughly are women.
Labor Migration Patterns:
Globalization induces labor migration from export-oriented developing countries to newly industrialized and advanced capitalist nations.
Newly industrialized nations experience a shift as the traditional female workforce moves to higher-paying manufacturing positions, creating demand for lower-wage labor from countries like the Philippines.
Advanced capitalist countries see expansion in secondary manufacturing and service industries, relying on post-Fordist modes of production and decentralized manufacturing.
Global cities require low-wage services to maintain lifestyles of professionals.
Asian immigrant women are vulnerable due to social, political, and cultural barriers, making them targets for low-wage positions.
Migration of Skilled Workers:
Both newly industrialized and advanced capitalist nations recruit professionals from developing countries to fill labor shortages.
Workers are attracted by higher wages and technological advances.
Sending nations lose skills due to migration, leading to shortages of skilled labor.
Receiving nations benefit from immigrant professionals without investing in their education and training.
Immigration Act of 1990:
Responded to the need for highly skilled professionals and technicians in the U.S. workforce.
Acknowledged the need for low-wage workers.
Increased occupational preference visas from 534,000 to 738,000 by 1995.
Preference given to migrants with "extraordinary ability" and professionals, as well as 10,000 "other workers," including the unskilled.
Overview of Labor Market Activities of Asian Immigrant Women
Shift to Female-Dominated Immigration:
Since the 1930s, women have outnumbered male migrants in the U.S.
Prioritization of family reunification, beginning with the War Brides Act of 1945, contributed to this shift.
The Hart-Cellar Act (1965 Immigration Act) ended Asian immigration restrictions and increased quotas, changing the composition of the Asian population.
Direct recruitment of skilled workers led to family-based migration.
Growth of the Asian American Population:
Population grew exponentially:
1970: 1.5 million
1980: 3.7 million
1990: 7.3 million
The majority () in 1990 were foreign-born.
Between 1975 and 1980, working-age women immigrants outnumbered men, except for India due to high demand in science and technology.
Migration Patterns:
Most Asian women migrate as part of a family unit.
Approximately of professional Asian immigrants between 1988 and 1990 migrated with families.
Southeast Asian refugees usually enter the U.S. with families.
Many Asian women enter as "secondary migrants" for family reasons, but also as primary migrants who sponsor families (especially Filipinos due to nurse recruitment).
Labor Force Participation:
Asian immigrant women actively participate in the labor market, contributing to family income and maintaining dual-wage-earning households.
Income pooling is the primary reason for the high median family income of Asian Americans.
Approximately of the general female population (age 16+) are in the paid labor force.
Labor Market Participation by Ethnic Group (1990):
Rates vary by ethnic group, with Filipina immigrant women exceeding the general population.
Filipinas have higher labor force participation due to better English and wage labor concentration; they have the lowest rate of self-employment ( per 1,000).
General U.S. population self-employment rate is per 1,000, Koreans at per 1,000, and Chinese at per 1,000.
Labor market participation for other Asian immigrant women may be undercounted due to unrecognized assistance in family businesses.
Educational Attainment:
High levels of educational attainment impact employment.
In 1990, of the U.S. general population completed four years of college.
Foreign-born Asian women in the five largest ethnic groups have significantly higher educational attainment, except for Southeast Asian refugees.
Occupational Distribution and Underemployment:
Filipina and Chinese women occupy a wide variety of jobs.
Other groups concentrate in specific areas (e.g., Koreans in self-employment, Vietnamese in low-wage jobs).
Labor market incorporation can be bifurcated, with some in managerial/professional roles and others in service/manufacturing.
Skilled Asian immigrant women may turn to lower-skilled occupations due to restrictions and language barriers.
Underemployment is a way Asian immigrant women provide "cheap labor", even with high education levels.
Asian Immigrant Women and Global Restructuring
Material Links in Global Restructuring:
Lisa Lowe illustrates links between low-wage manufacturing Asian women and those in Asia through global restructuring.
Continuities exist between Chicanas/Latinas in the U.S. and maquiladora workers, as well as Asian women in the U.S. and Asian manufacturing zones.
These continuities should be extended to other groups of Asian migrant workers as part of globalization.
Cheap Labor in the U.S. Economy:
Asian immigrant women provide