Introduction to Psychology

Motivation - refers to the various physiological and psychological factors that cause us to act in a specific way at a particular time

Motivated people - are energized, directed and are characterized by intensified feelings about reaching a goal

extrinsic - that is outside the self

intrinsic - that is coming from within

Theories of Motivation - Evolutionary perspective Drive- Reductionism and Homeostasis Search for Stimulation Humanistic theory Cognitive Perspectives

Evolutionary perspective - or instinct theory

Evolutionary perspective - says that there are biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exists in both people and animal

Drive- Reductionism and Homeostasis - the view that organisms learn to engage in behaviors that have the effect of reducing drive

Drive - a condition of arousal in an organism that is associated with a need

Need - a state of deprivation. It includes needs for achievement, affiliation, and power.

Homeostasis - the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state

Search for Stimulation - Human and some animals appear motivated to seek novel stimulation.

Humanistic theory - man is always striving towards self- actualization.

Abraham Maslow - Humanistic theory, man is always striving towards self- actualization.

Cognitive Perspectives - People are motivated to eliminate inconsistencies in this world

Hierarchy of Needs - Abraham Maslow

Self actualization - Highest level in Hierarchy of needs

Esteem needs - second level in Hierarchy of needs

Love and Belongingness - Third level in Hierarchy of needs

Safety needs - fourth level in Hierarchy of needs

Physiological needs - lowest level in Hierarchy of needs

Kinds of motives - Biological needs Social needs Hunger Sex Achievement

Biological needs - These are physiological requirements that are critical to our survival and physical well-being. This includes the needs for food, water, sex, oxygen, sleep, and pain avoidance.

Social Needs - These needs are acquired through learning and experience. This may include needs for achievement, affiliation, fun, relaxation, helpfulness, independence, and nurturance.

Genetic hunger factors - come from inherited instructions found in our genes

Fat cells - their number is primarily influenced by heredity

Metabolic rate - refers to how efficiently our bodies break food down into energy and how our body burn off that level

Set point - refers to a certain level of body fat (adipose tissue) that our bodies strive to maintain constant throughout our lives

Weight-regulating genes - plays a role in influencing appetite, body metabolism, and secretion of hormones (leptin) that regulate fats stores

Psychosocial hunger factors - come from learned associations between food and other stimuli

Genetic sex factor - includes inherited instructions for the development of sexual organs, the secretion of sex hormones, and the wiring of the neural circuits that control sexual reflexes

Biological sex factors - includes the action of sex hormones which are involved in secondary sexual characteristics, sexual motivation, and the development of ova and sperm

Psychological sex factors - plays a role in developing a gender identity, gender role and sexual orientation

Gender Identity - refers to the individual’s subjective experience and feelings of being either a male or a female

Gender roles - refers to the traditional or stereotypical behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that society designates as masculine or feminine. It greatly influences how we think and behave

Sexual Orientation/Preference - refers to homosexual, heterosexual or bisexual orientation.

Masters and Johnson - Sexual Response Stages

Excitement - The body becomes physiologically and sexually aroused, resulting in erection or vaginal lubrication

Plateau - Sexual and physiological arousal continues in males and females

Orgasm - Men have rhythmic muscle contractions that cause ejaculation of sperm. Women experience similar rhythmic muscle contractions of the pelvic area. Women and men report very pleasurable feelings during orgasm.

Resolution - Physiological response return to normal

Sexual Problems - Premature or rapid ejaculation Inhibited female orgasm Sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS Undesirable consequences

Achievement - It refers to the desire to set challenging goals and to persist in pursuing these goals in the face of obstacles, frustrations and setbacks. It can be driven by learning goals and performance goals.

Extrinsic motivation - such as praise and salary is effective in achieving performance goals

Intrinsic motivation - such as self-satisfaction is effective in achieving learning goals.

Emotion - the feeling aspect of consciousness, characterized by a certain physical arousal, a certain behavior that reveals the emotion to the outside world and an inner awareness of feelings.

to move - motive and emotion comes from the same Latin word that means

Theories of Emotion - James-Lange Theory Cannon-Bard Cognitive Appraisal

James-Lange Theory - External Stimulus → Arousal and action → Appraisal of arousal and action → Experience the specific emotion

Cannon-Bard - External Stimulus ↓ Processing by brain ↓ ↓ Arousal Experiencing and action the emotion

Cognitive Appraisal - External Physiological Stimulus arousal ↓ ↓ Interpretation of arousal according to situation ↓ Experiencing the emotion

Happiness - raising and lowering of mouth corners, 6 linear muscles

Sadness - lowering of mouth corners, raise inner portion of brows, 6 linear muscles

Surprise - brows arch, eyes wide open to expose more white, jaw drops slightly, 3 linear muscles

Fear - brows raised, eyes open, mouth opens slightly, 5 linear muscles, 1 sphincter for the mouth

Disgust - upper lip raised, nose bridge is wrinkled, cheeks raised, 6 linear muscles

Anger - brows lowered, lips pressed firmly, eyes bulging, 4 linear muscles, 1 sphincter for the mouth

Universal Facial Expressions - Happiness, Sadness, Surprise, Fear, Disgust, Anger

Functions of emotion - 1.Social Signals 2.Survival, attention, and memory 3. Arousal and motivation

Social signals - It sends social signals about ones feelings or needs

evolutionary theory of emotions - one function of emotion is to help us evaluate objects, people and situations in terms of how good or bad they are for our well being and survival.

The Yerkes-Dodson law - performance on a task is an interaction between the level of physiological arousal and the difficulty of the task

Happiness - indicated by smiling and laughing, can result in momentary pleasures, short-term joys and long term satisfaction.

adaptation level theory - we quickly become accustomed to receiving some good fortune, we take the good fortune for granted within a short period of time, and as a result the initial impact of our good fortune fades and contributes less to our long term level of happiness.

Personality - The unique way in which each individuals thinks, acts and feels throughout life.

Sigmund Freud - Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud Psychoanalytic Theory - Id, Ego, Superego

Id - completely unconscious, pleasure-seeking, amoral part of the personality that exists at birth

Ego - mostly conscious and is far more rational, logical and cunning than the id.

Superego - contains conscience, the part of the personality that makes people feel guilt when they do wrong. It develops as the child learns customs, rules and expectations of society

Carl Jung - Analytical Psychology

Analytical Psychology (Carl Jung) - believed in both a personal unconscious and a collective unconscious that holds universal human memories called archetypes

Archetypes - universal human memories

Alfred Adler - Inferiority Complex

Inferiority complex (Alfred Adler) - focused on feelings of inferiority and seeking feelings of superiority as opposed to importance of sexuality.

Karen Horney - disagreed with Freud on concept of penis envy, developed womb envy, focused on basic anxiety

Erik Erickson - Psychosocial Development

Psychosocial Development (Erik Erickson) - emphasized social relationships at every stage of life

Hans Eysenck - Personality Dimensions and Hipocrates Personality Types

Choleric - Extraverted-Unstable

Sanguine - Extraverted-Stable

Phlegmatic - Introverted-Stable

Melancholic - Introverted-Unstable

Factor 1 - Extraversion

Extraversion - Contrasts talkativeness, assertiveness, and activity with silence, passivity, and reserve

Factor 2 - Agreeableness

Agreeableness - Contrasts kindness, trust, and warmth with hostility, selfishness and distrust

Factor 3 - Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness - Contrasts organization, thoroughness, and reliability with carelessness, negligence, and unreliability

Factor 4 - Neuroticism

Neuroticism - Contrasts nervousness, moodiness, and sensitivity to negative stimuli with coping ability

Factor 5 - Openness to experience

Openness to experience - Contrasts imagination, curiosity, and creativity with shallowness and lack of perceptiveness

Albert Bandura - Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive theory (Albert Bandura) - According to this theory, person variables and situational variables interact to influence behavior.

Person Variables - Competencies, Encoding Strategies, Experiences, Subjective values, Self-regulatory systems and plans

Situational Variables - Rewards, Punishment

Humanistic Theories - Theory of Sequential Development (Abraham Maslow) and Self-Concept (Carl Rogers)

Abraham Maslow - Theory of Sequential Development

Theory Of Sequential Development - self-actualization is facilitated through positive regard especially the unconditional positive regard.

Self-concept - Congruency between the ideal self and the real self

Personality Assessments - Objective Personality Tests and Projective Tests

Objective Personality Tests - also called self-report questionnaires, consists of specific written statements that require individuals to indicate for example by checking true or false

Projective Tests - have no clear specified answers. Individuals are shown ambiguous stimuli such as inkblot and asked to say what they look like

stress - the term used to describe the physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses to events that are appraised as threatening or challenging.

stressors - events that cause a stress reaction

distress and eustress - 2 kinds of stressors

pressure uncontrollably frustration conflict - psychological stressors

pressure - the psychological experience produced by urgent demands or expectations for a person’s behavior that come from an outside source.

UNCONTROLLABILITY - Another factor that increases a person’s experience of stress is the degree of control that the person has over a particular event or situation.

FRUSTRATION - the psychological experience produced by the blocking of a desired goal or fulfillment of a perceived need.

CONFLICT - Whenever you find yourself torn between two or more competing and incompatible desires, goals, or actions.

type a personality type b personality type c personality hardy personality - personality types

type a personality - person who is ambitious, time conscious, extremely hardworking, and tends to have high levels of hostility and anger as well as being easily annoyed.

type b personality - person who is relaxed and laid-back, less driven and competitive than Type A, and slow to anger.

type c personality - pleasant but repressed person, who tends to internalize his or her anger and anxiety and who finds expressing emotions difficult.

hardy personality - a person who seems to thrive on stress but lacks the anger and hostility of the Type A personality

poverty job stress racism - social and cultural factors

Environmental stressors - catastrophe

major life decisions - ex. death of spouse

hassles - daily annoyances

Optimists - people who always tend to look for positive outcomes.

Pessimists - seem to expect the worst to happen

Problem-focused coping - We try to decrease stress by solving the problem through seeking information, changing our own behavior, or taking whatever action is needed to resolve the difficulty

Emotion-focused coping - We do things primarily to deal with our emotional distress, such as seeking support and sympathy or avoiding or denying the situation

Meditation - can produce a state of relaxation that can aid in coping with the physiological reactions to a stressful situation

social-support system - network of friends, family members, neighbors, coworkers, and others who can offer help to a person in need. That help can take the form of advice, physical or monetary support, information, emotional support, love and affection, or companionship.

Religion - can also increase the likelihood that a person will volunteer to help others and feel stronger and better in many ways.

Social Psychology - the scientific study of how a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior influence and are influenced by social groups; area of psychology in which psychologists focus on how human behavior is affected by the presence of other people

CONFORMITY - refers to any behavior you perform because of group pressure, even though that pressure might not involve direct request

GROUPTHINK - occurs when people place more importance on maintaining group cohesiveness than on assessing the facts of the problem with which the group is concerned.

GROUP POLARIZATION - The tendency for members involved in a group discussion to take somewhat more extreme positions and suggest riskier actions when compared to individuals who have not participated in a group discussion.

SOCIAL FACILITATION - The tendency for the presence of other people to have a positive impact on the performance of an easy task

SOCIAL LOAFING - The tendency for people to put less effort into a simple task when working with others on that task

DEINDIVIDUATION - The lessening of personal identity, selfrestraint, and the sense of personal responsibility that can occur within a group

COMPLIANCE - Changing one’s behavior as a result of other people directing or asking for the change

FOOT-IN-THE-DOOR TECHNIQUE - Asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment.

DOOR-IN-THE-FACE TECHNIQUE - Asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment.

LOWBALL TECHNIQUE - Getting a commitment from a person and then raising the cost of that commitment.

OBEDIENCE - Changing one’s behavior at the command of an authority

ATTRIBUTIONS - The process of explaining one’s own behavior and the behavior of others

PREJUDICE - a negative attitude held by a person about the members of a particular social group

Discrimination - treating people differently because of prejudice toward the social group to which they belong

PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS - When people think about what attracts them to others, one of the topics that usually arises is the… of the other person.

PROXIMITY - The closer together people are physically, such as working in the same office building or living in the same dorm, the more likely they are to form a relationship.

BIRDS OF A FEATHER - People tend to like being around others who are similar to them in some way. The more people find they have in common with others—such as attitudes, beliefs, and interests—the more they tend to be attracted to those others

RECIPROCITY OF LIKING - Tendency of people to like other people who like them in return

intimacy, passion, commitment - 3 components of love

Robert Strenberg - Triangular Theory of Love

Intimacy - refers to the feelings of closeness that one has for another person or the sense of having close emotional ties to

Passion - refers to the emotional and sexual arousal a person feels toward the other person.

Commitment - involves the decisions one makes about a relationship. A short-term decision might be, “I think I’m in love.” An example of a more long-term decision is, “I want to be with this person for the rest of my life"

AGRESSION - When one person hurts or tries to destroy another person deliberately, either with words or with physical behavior,

Companionate love - people who like each other, feel emotionally close to each other, and understand one another’s motives have made a commitment to live together, usually in a marriage relationship.

SOCIAL ROLES - the pattern of behavior that is expected of a person who is in a particular social position

PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR - A socially desirable behavior that benefits others

ALTRUISM - A prosocial behavior that is done with no expectation of reward and may involve the risk of harm to oneself

BYSTANDER EFFECT - Referring to the effect that the presence of other people has on the decision to help or not help

psychological disorder - generally defined as a prolonged or recurring problem that seriously interferes with an individual’s ability to live satisfying personal life and function adequately in society

supernatural, biological, psychological traditions - three prominent approaches to abnormal behavior

supernatural tradition - abnormal behavior is attributed to agents outside our bodies or social environment, such as demons, spirits, or the influence of the moon and stars; although still alive,

biological tradition - disorders are attributed to disease or biochemical imbalances

psychological tradition - abnormal behavior is attributed to faulty psychological development and to social context

Cognitive-Emotional-Behavioral and Environmental Factors - It includes deficits in cognitive processes such as having unusual thought, deficits in processing emotional stimuli such as under or overreacting to emotional situations, behavioral problems such as lacking social skills, and environmental challenges such as dealing with stressful situations.

Statistical Frequency - A behavior may be considered abnormal if t occurs rarely or infrequently in relation to the behaviors of the general population.

Deviation from social norms - A behavior is considered abnormal if it deviates greatly from accepted social standards, values or norms.

Maladaptive behavior - A behavior is abnormal if it interferes with the individual’s ability to function in his personal life or in society.

Organic mental disorders - temporary or permanent dysfunctions of brain tissue caused by diseases or chemicals such as delirium, dementia or amnesia.

Substance-related disorders - refers to maladaptive use of drugs and alcohol.

Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders - characterized by psychotic symptoms like disorganized behavior, delusions and hallucinations and behavioral deterioration by over six months. It includes delusional disorder, schizoaffective disorder.

Mood disorders - including major depression, bipolar disorder, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder.

Anxiety Disorders - physiological signs of anxiety and subjective feelings of tension, apprehension or fear.

Somatoform disorders - dominated by somatic symptoms that resemble physical illness. It includes somatization and conversion disorders and hypochondriasis.

Dissociative disorders - features a sudden , temporary dysfunction of memory, consciousness, identity and behavior as in dissociative amnesia and multiple personality disorder.

Sexual and gender-identity disorder - gender identity disorder, paraphilia, and sexual dysfunction.

Generalized anxiety disorders - Is characterized by excessive and unrealistic worry about almost everything or feeling that something bad is about to happen.

Panic disorder - is characterized by recurrent and unexpected panic attacks. A panic attack is a period of intense fear or discomfort in which four or more of the following symptoms are present: pounding heart, sweating, trembling, shortness of breath, feelings of choking, chest pain, nausea, feeling dizzy and fear of losing control or dying.

Phobia - characterized by an intense and irrational fear that is out of all proportion to the possible danger of the object or situation.

Social phobia - characterized by irrational, marked and continuous fear of performing in social situations.

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder - consist of obsessions, which are persistent, recurring irrational thought that a person is unable to control, and compulsions, which are irresistible impulses to perform over and over senseless behaviors or rituals.

Post traumatic stress disorder - a disabling condition that results from personally experiencing an event that involves actual or threatened death r serious injury from witnessing or hearing of such event happening to a family member or close friend.

Major Depression - deeply depressed mood

Bipolar Disorder - involves extreme mood swings, ranging from severe depression to manic episodes.

Disorganized - marked by bizarre ideas, often about one’s body.

Catatonic - characterized by wild excitement or periods of rigidity, prolonged immobility

Paranoid - characterized by auditory hallucinations

Antisocial personality disorder - sociopath, minimal to no regard for value of others rights or feelings.

Borderline personality disorder - relationship with others that are intense and unstable, often moody, manipulative, and untrusting of others.

Dissociative amnesia - characterized by inability to recall important personal information usually associated with stressful or traumatic events.

Dissociative Fugue - marked by suddenly and unexpectedly traveling away from one’s home and being unable to recall his past

Dissociative Identity Disorder - the presence of two or more distinct identities or personality states.

Psychoanalysis - revealing an unconscious conflict, urges and desires

Dream interpretation - involve deciphering the hidden, latent content from the manifest content, the actual dream itself.

Free association - originally developed by Breuer, involved patients freely talking about whatever comes to mind; believed to reveal hidden, unconscious concerns.

Modern psychodynamic therapy - more directive and typically focuses more on the ego or sense of self rather than the id.

Person-centered therapy - developed by Carl Rogers, focuses on match between the real self and ideal self, maladjustment is a result of not matching, unconditional positive regard is important for congruence between real and ideal selves.

Gesalt Therapy - developed by Fritz Perls, focuses on match between actual and ideal self, focuses on whole picture. The therapist uses a very directive approach to lead the client to a number of planned experiences

Behavior modification - Techniques based on classical conditioning

Systematic desensitization - used to treat phobias in which a client is asked to make a list of ordered fears and taught to relax while concentrating on those fears.

Aversion therapy - an undesirable behavior is paired with an aversive stimulus to reduce the frequency of behavior.

Exposure therapy - expose individuals to anxiety-provoking stimulus in real or imagined form, in a gradual or sudden (flooding) manner.

Modeling - learning through the observation of models.

Reinforcement - the strengthening of a response by following it with a pleasurable consequence

Extinction - the removal of a reinforce to reduce the frequency of behavior

Beck’s cognitive therapy - the focus is on helping clients recognize distortions in their thinking and replace distorted, unrealistic beliefs with more realistic , helpful thoughts.

Cognitive-Behavioral therapy - the goal is to help clients overcome problems by learning to think more rationally and logically.

Rational-Emotive therapy - clients are directly challenged in their irrational beliefs and helped to restructure their thinking into more rational belief statements.

Family therapy - a form of group therapy in which family members meet together with a counselor to resolve problems that affect the entire family

Self-help groups (support groups) - a group composed of discussion, problem solving, and social and emotional support.

Biomedical therapies/ psychopharmacology - a. Antipsychotic drugs b. Anti anxiety drugs c. Anti manic drugs d. Anti depressant drugs e. Electroconvulsive therapy