PSYC 1020 Final Exam Study Guide
Final Exam Study Guide PSYC 1020 Fall 2025
Basic Methodology
Correlational Study
Variable: measurable characteristics of interest.
Correlational Coefficient: statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.
Absolute Value: represents the strength of the correlation irrespective of direction.
Sign: indicates the direction of the relationship (positive or negative).
Strength of Relationships:
Strong: Values close to 1 or -1.
Moderate: Values around 0.5 or -0.5.
Weak: Values closer to 0.
Nonlinear Relationships: may not show a consistent pattern or correlation.
Experiments
Independent Variable: manipulated variable.
Dependent Variable: measured outcome.
Quasi-experiments: involve manipulation of an independent variable but lack random assignment.
Subject Variables: inherent characteristics of subjects that can affect experimental outcomes.
Experimental Designs:
Between Subjects: different subjects in each group.
Within Subjects: same subjects in all conditions.
Factorial Design: involves two or more independent variables.
Mixed Design: combines within and between subjects elements.
Ecological Validity: the extent to which findings can be generalized to real-world settings.
Internal Validity: degree to which an experiment accurately establishes cause-and-effect relationships.
Confounding Variable: an external variable influencing the dependent variable that may obscure true results.
Learning
Simple Learning Mechanisms
Habituation: decrease in response to a repeated stimulus.
Sensitization: increase in response to a repeated stimulus.
Opponent-process Theory of Emotion: refers to emotional reactions occurring in pairs of opposites, where one process suppresses the other.
Classical Conditioning
Elements of Classical Conditioning:
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response (UR): natural reaction to the US.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): previously neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the US.
Conditioned Response (CR): learned response to the CS.
Important Properties of Classical Conditioning:
CS must precede the UR for effective conditioning.
Sensory Preconditioning: prior associations can influence newer associations.
Some associations are learned more easily than others due to factors such as:
Overshadowing: stronger stimuli overshadow weaker stimuli.
Blocking: prior learning of one stimulus can block later learning of another.
Latent Inhibition: familiar stimuli take longer to condition.
The CR may not match the UR (
e.g. CR can be weaker).Stimulus Generalization: tendency to respond similarly to similar stimuli.
Stimulus Discrimination: ability to distinguish between different stimuli.
Extinction: the reduction or elimination of the CR when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.
Spontaneous Recovery: return of the CR after a rest period.
Second Order Conditioning: when a new CS is paired with an existing CS.
Counterconditioning: using classical conditioning to create new responses to a stimulus.
Predictive Value: organisms learn the predictive power of conditioning stimuli.
Application of Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Tolerance to Heroin: research shows that conditioned environments affect physiological responses.
Real World Applications: phobias, sexual fetishes, advertising utilize classical conditioning principles.
Operant Conditioning
Law of Effect: behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to recur.
Elements of Operant Conditioning:
Situation: context for behavior.
Behavior: action taken.
Reinforcement: increases likelihood of behavior.
Punishment: decreases likelihood of behavior.
Types of Reinforcement:
Positive Reinforcement: adding a pleasant stimulus.
Negative Reinforcement: removing an aversive stimulus.
Characteristics of Effective Reinforcement and Punishment:
Timing: immediate reinforcement leads to stronger associations.
Consistency: predictability increases effectiveness.
Intensity: stronger stimuli produce more significant behavioral changes.
Schedules of Reinforcement:
Continuous Reinforcement: every correct response is reinforced.
Partial Reinforcement: reinforcement given intermittently.
Types:
Fixed Ratio: reinforcement after a set number of responses.
Fixed Interval: reinforcement after a specific time period.
Variable Ratio: reinforcement after a fluctuating number of responses (highest rates of response).
Variable Interval: reinforcement after an unpredictable amount of time.
Effects of schedules on response rates vary, with certain schedules being more effective than others.
Latent Learning: learning that occurs without reinforcement but is not demonstrated until a reward is available (Cognitive maps - Tolman & Honzik, 1930).
Principles of Punishment
Types of Punishment:
Positive Punishment: adding averse stimulus.
Negative Punishment: removing a favorable stimulus.
Factors Affecting Punishment Effectiveness:
Intensity: higher intensity = greater impact.
Delay: longer delays = less impact.
Schedule: persistent schedules lead to more effective results.
Side Effects of Punishment:
Fear Anxiety.
Learned Helplessness.
Aggression.
The Biological Bases of Thought and Behavior
Nerve Cells and Nerve Impulses
Structure of the Neuron:
Dendrites: receive signals.
Nucleus: contains genetic material.
Axon Hillock: initiates action potential.
Axon: transmits impulse.
Nodes of Ranvier: gaps in the myelin sheath allowing for faster transmission.
Myelin Sheath: insulating layer increasing transmission speed.
Terminal Buttons: release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons.
Synapse: gap between neurons where communication occurs.
Glia Cells: supportive roles; include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, radial glia.
Neural Impulses
Resting Potential: state of the neuron when not firing (-70 mV).
Polarization: the inside of the neuron is more negative compared to the outside.
Hyperpolarization: increased negativity inside the neuron.
Action Potential: rapid rise and fall of voltage across a membrane, initiated at -55mV threshold.
Absolute Refractory Period: time during which a neuron cannot fire again.
Relative Refractory Period: time during which a neuron can only fire with greater stimulation.
Sodium-Potassium Pump: active transport mechanism restoring resting potential post-action potential.
Local Neurons: function without long-range axons.
Graded Potentials: variations in membrane potential that can lead to action potentials.
Synapses and Neurotransmitters
Synapses: sites of neurotransmitter release and reception.
Neurotransmitters: chemicals facilitating communication across the synapse.
Excitatory: increase likelihood of firing.
Inhibitory: decrease likelihood of firing.
Examples: GABA (inhibitory), glutamate (excitatory), acetylcholine, dopamine, endorphins, serotonin.
Long Term Potentiation: strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity (Olds and Milner, 1954, Nucleus accumbens).
Connectionism: Parallel-Distributed Processing (PDP) theory, resembling how neural networks process information.
Introduction to the Brain and Nervous System
Anatomical Terms of Reference
Superior/Dorsal: above.
Inferior/Ventral: below.
Posterior/Caudal: back of the body.
Anterior/Rostral: front of the body.
Coronal: frontal plane dividing front and back.
Sagittal: divides left and right.
Medial: towards the middle; can denote internal.
Horizontal: divides top and bottom.
Structure of the Brain
Hindbrain:
Pons: regulates sleep and arousal.
Cerebellum: coordinates motor control and balance, contains Purkinje cells.
Medulla: controls autonomic functions.
Forebrain can be understood through several critical structures:
Thalamus: relay center for sensory information.
Hippocampus: crucial for memory formation; related studies (e.g., H.M. case).
Hypothalamus: regulates essential bodily functions, consisting of:
Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH): involved in satiety.
Lateral Hypothalamus (LH): regulates hunger.
Limbic System: includes emotional processing centers like the amygdala.
Cerebral Cortex: associated with higher-level functions including perception and judgment.
Cerebral Cortex and Functionality
Corpus Callosum: structure connecting the left and right hemispheres.
Contralaterality: the principle that each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.
Split Brain Studies: offer insight into hemispheric specialization.
Hemispheric Specialization
Left Hemisphere Dominance: associated with language abilities (Broca's area, Wernicke’s area).
WADA Test: assesses language processing in one hemisphere at a time.
Right Hemisphere: better at visual-spatial tasks.
Imaging Techniques
Structural Imaging Techniques:
CT (Computed Tomography):
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging):
Functional Imaging Techniques:
PET (Positron Emission Tomography):
fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging):
Example: Wagner et al. (1998) study on brain activity.
Electroencephalography (EEG): records electrical activity; good temporal resolution.
Event Related Potential (ERP): measures brain response to specific sensory events.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG): functional imaging capturing magnetic fields produced by neural activity.
The Lesioned Brain
Dissociations and Associations: studies focus on how specific brain areas contribute to memory.
Explicit and Implicit Memory: different types of memory processed in different brain regions.
Single Dissociation: performance differs based on brain region impact but does not imply causation.
Double Dissociation: two separate functions provided by two different brain regions, analyzed through patients (e.g., Patient M.S. - Gabrieli et al., 1995).
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): noninvasive method for stimulating neurons; aids in understanding functional networks.
Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS): influences cognitive processes based on electric current applied to the scalp.
Cognitive Psychology
Attention
Information Selection: crucial in processing sensory information.
James Definition of Attention: focusing on select stimuli while ignoring others.
Stroop Task: tests interference effects in attention.
Sensory Memory
Atkinson & Shiffrin Model: multi-store model where sensory information is initially stored in sensory memory before processing.
Sperling (1960): experiments on iconic memory (whole vs. partial report techniques).
Capacity: limited;
Duration: brief retention period.
Backward Masking and Forward Masking: phenomena that demonstrate the fragility of sensory memory.
Information Selection Models
Cocktail Party Problem: phenomenon of selective listening in noisy environments.
Attention as a Filter: proposed by Broadbent (1958).
Early Selection vs. Late Selection: when the filtering occurs within the cognitive process (as studied in Cherry, 1953 and Moray, 1959).
Activation Metaphor: understanding attention as a resource pool, leading to dual-task performance (Kantowitz et al., 1983).
Negative Priming: refers to inhibition of responding to previously ignored stimuli.
Short Term and Working Memory (STWM)
Atkinson & Shiffrin Model
Distinctions between auditory and visual short-term memory and long-term memory processes.
H.M. case: representation of memory functioning with normal digit span despite amnesia.
Primacy and Recency Effects: examined through various manipulations (Shallice & Warrington, 1970).
Capacity of Short-Term Memory (STM)
Miller (1956): proposed the rule of 7 ± 2 for capacity.
Chunking: increases capacity of STM by grouping information.
Decaying vs. Interference:
Decay: fading of memory over time.
Interference: when learning new information disrupts retention of old memory (proactive and retroactive interference).
Memory Codes
Different codes in memory: verbal and visual (Conrad, 1964) and semantic (Wickens, 1972).
Baddeley’s Model
Phonological Loop: involved in verbal storage and rehearsal; related to reading speed and recall.
Episodic Buffer: integrates both phonological and visual-spatial information.
Executive Control: manages cognitive tasks through the frontal lobes.
Long Term Memory (LTM)
Metacognition and Memory Types
Episodic Memory: personal experiences.
Semantic Memory: factual information.
Ebbinghaus (1885) Research
CVCs: nonsense syllables utilized in studies.
Forgetting Curve: describes decline in memory retention.
Savings Score: shows memory retention through relearning.
Findings show forgetting is significant within the first 24 hours.
Overlearning: strengthens memory retention.
Distributed > Massed Learning: the spacing effect (research by Cepeda et al.).
Levels of Processing Theory
Craik & Lockhart (1972): deeper processing enhances memory retention.
Transfer Appropriate Processing: matches between encoding and retrieval tasks matters in memory success.
Organization in Memory: hierarchy and imagery aid recall (Bousfield, 1953; Bower et al., 1969).
Coding and Memory Functions
Encoding Specificity: suggests memory is most effective when retrieved in the same context as learned (Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
Role of the Hippocampus in memory formation; research on anterograde and retrograde amnesia; critical to understanding Alzheimer’s disease.
Individual Differences and Intelligence
Methodological Concepts
Subject Variables: characteristics influencing outcomes;
Quasi-Experimental Designs: explore differences without random assignment.
Intelligence Testing
Defining Intelligence:
Base tests on well-structured theories or abilities (Binet).
Evaluation of IQ Tests:
Reliability: stability across tests;
Validity: effectiveness at measuring intelligence.
Approaches to Studying Intelligence
Psychometric Approach: emphasizes measurement of intelligence.
General vs. Multiple Intelligence: general intelligence theory vs. specific talents.
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Sternberg, 1985): outlines analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.
Genetic and Environmental Influences: research from Tyron (1940) and Cooper & Zubek (1958) on brightness and dullness in rats; twin studies reveal environmental interactions.
Personality
Trait Approach
Definitions: traits as habitual patterns of behavior.
Criticism: varies in consistency across situations.
The Big 5 Traits (CANOE or OCEAN):
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Openness to Experience
Extroversion
Biological Roots and Theories
Eysenck’s Theory: proposes biological basis for traits categorized into three super traits (extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism).
Twin Studies: relate to similarities in personality due to genetics (Loehlin, 1992; Riemann et al., 1997).
Cerebral Asymmetry and Emotion
Davidson & Fox (1989): linkage between brain hemispheric activity and personality, impacting emotional approach and withdrawal tendencies.
Critical Tests Related to Emotion
Studies on anger responses give insight into how emotions are processed through brain structures and functions.