Parliamentary Government and Presidential Government

Introduction

Parliamentarism is a widely adopted system of government. The British system serves as an example for many countries.
Despite the notion that political systems are 'not for export,' the British system has been successfully adapted in various situations abroad.
There are two main types of parliamentary procedure: British and continental.
The analysis focuses on the common factors in different parliamentary systems rather than distinguishing their forms.
The UK could abolish the monarchy, adopt a code of constitutional laws, transform the House of Lords, and introduce a multi-party system while still maintaining a parliamentary system.

Basic Principles of Parliamentary Government

1. The Assembly Becomes a Parliament

Parliamentary government often evolves through three phases:
- Government by a monarch.
- An assembly challenging the monarch's power.
- The assembly taking over responsibility for government as a parliament, with the monarch losing traditional powers.
This pattern is evident in Britain, where assemblies gained power over the purse and the monarch's role became increasingly executive and dependent on the legislature.
The theory of the separation of powers emerged, distinguishing between the 'legislative power' of assemblies and the 'executive power' of the king.
The king lost executive power to ministers responsible to the assembly, transitioning to the present phase.
In parliamentary monarchies, the monarch has ceased to exercise executive power, which has passed to ministers responsible to the legislature.
Parliamentary government involves a fusion of executive and legislative functions.
'Parliament' signifies a body including the government, while 'assembly' refers to the legislature excluding members of the government.
The executive, once separate, is challenged by the assembly, which transforms into a parliament comprising both government and assembly.

2. The Executive Is Divided into Two Parts

The executive is split into a prime minister or chancellor (head of government) and a monarch or president (head of state).
Monarchs typically hold their position by hereditary title, while presidents are elected by parliament.

3. The Head of State Appoints the Head of Government

Dividing the executive in constitutional monarchies allows the government to conduct state business while preserving the mystique of monarchy.
In parliamentary systems, the head of government is appointed by the head of state.
If the electorate directly appointed the head of government, the system would be presidential.

4. The Head of the Government Appoints the Ministry

The prime minister is appointed by the head of state, and then nominates other ministers.
The selection of ministers allows the head of government some personal choice.
Ministers are formally appointed by the head of state, who may exert informal influence, as may party alignments and factions in the assembly.

5. The Ministry (or Government) Is a Collective Body

The monarchical executive has been replaced by a council of ministers, making it a collective body.
The prime minister is considered "first among equals" (primus inter pares).

6. Ministers Are Usually Members of Parliament

Members of the government have a dual role:
- Ministers.
- Members of parliament, elected by constituents.
Parliament includes both government and assembly; therefore, a member of the government is also a member of parliament but not of the assembly.
Some parliamentary countries do not require ministers to be members of parliament, such as Sweden, The Netherlands, Norway and Luxembourg
Even if ministers are not members of parliament, the system can still be parliamentary if they participate in debates and are responsible to the assembly.
This condition is met in Norway, Sweden, The Netherlands and Luxembourg but not in the French Fifth Republic.

7. The Government Is Politically Responsible to the Assembly

The government is responsible to the assembly, which can refuse support if it deems the government unwise or unconstitutional.
The assembly can force the government to resign through a vote of censure or by not assenting to an important proposal.

8. The Head of Government May Advise the Head of State to Dissolve Parliament

The head of state dissolves parliament at the request of the head of government.
Some states restrict the executive's right to dissolve the assembly, such as in Norway.

9. Parliament As a Whole Is Supreme

Parliament is supreme over its constituent parts (government and assembly), neither of which may dominate the other.
The government depends on the assembly's support, but the assembly is not supreme because the government can dissolve parliament.
Many parliamentary systems fail when one part claims supremacy.
The nature of parliamentary supremacy varies; in the UK and Scandinavia, the emphasis is on the government's role, while in the French Third and Fourth Republics, the assembly played the dominant role.

10. The Government As a Whole Is Only Indirectly Responsible to the Electorate

The government is directly responsible to the assembly but only indirectly to the electorate.
The government is appointed from elected representatives.
Members of the government stand for election as candidates for the assembly, and the prime minister transforms them into ministers.

11. Parliament Is the Focus of Power in the Political System

The fusion of executive and legislative powers in parliament gives it overriding ascendancy.
Parliament is the stage for politics, the forum for national ideas, and the school for future leaders.
The government must accept the assembly's challenges, and the assembly must avoid usurping the government's functions.
This requires a delicate balance of powers without separate institutions.

Presidential Government

Presidential government is associated with the theory of the separation of powers.
John Locke suggested separating the executive (monarch) from the legislature (parliament).
Montesquieu favored the British system for separating executive, legislative, and judicial powers.
The theory was based on a monarch acting as executive and an assembly as legislature.
Presidential government is a successor to the separation of powers doctrine.
The American political system is the model for presidential government.
The United States was the first to break with the European monarchical tradition.

Key Aspects

The American constitution reflects the separation of powers.
An elected president replaces the king or governor as the executive power.
Presidential theory has basic characteristics irrespective of any particular political system.

Contrasting Parliamentary and Presidential Governments: Eleven Propositions

1. The Assembly Remains an Assembly Only

Presidential theory requires the assembly to remain separate, unlike parliamentary theory where assembly and government fuse into a parliament.
The American system made parliamentarism unnecessary and impractical.

2. The Executive Is Not Divided

The executive is a president elected by the people for a definite term at the time of assembly elections.
The presidential executive is elected by the people.
The president is elected for a definite term of office, preventing the assembly from forcing his resignation but requiring him to stand for re-election.
Electing the president at the time of assembly elections associates the two branches of government, encourages party unity, and clarifies the issues.

3. The Head of the Government Is Head of State

The head of government is also head of state, unlike in pre-parliamentary monarchies.
The presidential office has limited pomp and circumstance.
The president's ceremonial aspect reflects his political prestige.

4. The President Appoints Heads of Departments Who Are His Subordinates

The president appoints secretaries (or ministers) who head executive departments.
Appointments are subject to confirmation by the assembly or one of its organs.
The president has a wide choice in practice.

5. The President Is Sole Executive

Presidential government is individual, unlike parliamentary government, which is collective.
The 'cabinet' in the United States is not a cabinet in the parliamentary sense.

6. Members of the Assembly Are Ineligible for Office in the Administration and Vice Versa

Personnel are separate in presidential states.
Neither the President nor his aides may sit in the US Congress.
Ministers may not be members of the assembly but may attend and take part in debates.

7. The Executive Is Responsible to the Constitution

The president is responsible to the constitution, not the assembly.
The assembly holds the president ultimately responsible through the impeachment process.
Impeachment enforces juridical compliance with the constitutional letter of the law.
It is distinct from political control over the president's conduct.

8. The President Cannot Dissolve or Coerce the Assembly

The assembly cannot dismiss the president; the president may not dissolve the assembly.
The system is one of checks and balances.
There is mutual independence of the executive and legislative branches.

9. The Assembly Is Ultimately Supreme

There is no fusion of the executive and legislative branches.
The executive cannot interfere in the assembly's proceedings, nor can the assembly invade the executive's province.
The assembly is ultimately supreme.
The president may have considerable authority but may be powerless without the assembly's appropriations.
The assembly may impeach him if he acts unconstitutionally.
The assembly has the right to amend the constitution.
In parliamentary states, amendments require both government and assembly, whereas in presidential systems, the assembly may amend the constitution without regard to the president.

10. The Executive Is Directly Responsible to the Electorate

The presidential executive depends on a popular vote.
The president, of all persons in the political system, is elected by the whole body of electors.
A president can argue that he represents the whole people.

11. There Is No Focus of Power in the Political System

There is division and fragmentation instead of concentration and unity.
The White House and the Capitol are at opposite ends of Pennsylvania Avenue, symbolizing their political separation.

Concluding Remarks

Parliamentarism efficient government.
Presidentialism promotes more limited government.
Presidentialism is not necessarily weak government and that a vigorous executive may dominate the assembly.
Presidential government has failed in South America due to historical, cultural, and political factors.
A multi-party system can complicate the relations of president, assembly, and people, contributing to political instability.
Giving the president a longer term of office may make him a powerful figure.
Creating a separate 'government' responsible to the assembly may be ineffective if the president remains unaffected.
There should be either a separation of powers with no focus or a fusion with parliament as the focus.