Psychopathology

Definitions of Abnormality

• Statistical Infrequency:

  • A behavior or disorder is considered abnormal if it occurs more than two standard deviations away from the average on a normal distribution curve.

  • Used in clinical diagnoses as a benchmark for normalcy, e.g., Schizophrenia affects about 1% of people.

  • Strength: Provides a clear benchmark for diagnosing mental health issues.

  • Weakness: Overlooks positive abnormal traits; not all rare traits are negative (e.g., High IQ).

• Failure to Function Adequately:

  • Proposed by Rosenhan and Seligman (1989).

  • A person may be deemed abnormal if they cannot lead a 'normal' life due to their mental state, which includes failing to follow social norms and causing distress.

  • Strength: Takes patient’s perspective into account for accurate diagnosis.

  • Weakness: Risks labeling people as 'crazy' leading to discrimination against them.

• Deviation from Social Norms:

  • Defines abnormality based on behavior that strays from cultural norms.

  • Example: Diagnosing Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) for aggression towards strangers.

  • Weakness: Risk of cultural discrimination; some behaviors considered abnormal in one culture are normal in another.

• Deviation from Ideal Mental Health:

  • Proposed by Jahoda (1958). It includes criteria like self-actualization, positive self-perception, and normal motivation.

  • Weakness: Sets unrealistic standards; most people will not meet all criteria, thus classifying many as abnormal.

Characteristics of Phobias

• Behavioral Characteristics:

  • Panic: Heightened physiological response upon encountering the phobic stimulus.

  • Avoidance: Negatively reinforced; avoidance impacts day-to-day life.

  • Endurance: Remaining in the presence of a phobic stimulus despite anxiety.

• Emotional Characteristics:

  • Experience of anxiety disproportionate to the actual danger posed by the stimulus.

• Cognitive Characteristics:

  • Selective Attention: Focused on the phobic stimulus.

  • Irrational Beliefs: Misjudged perceptions of danger associated with the stimulus.

  • Cognitive Distortions: Exaggeration of the threat posed by the phobia.

Characteristics of Depression

• Behavioral Characteristics:

  • Changes in activity levels, aggression, altered sleep and eating patterns.

• Emotional Characteristics:

  • Low self-esteem, persistent poor mood, and high levels of anger.

• Cognitive Characteristics:

  • Absolutist Thinking: Extreme thoughts about self-failures.

  • Selective Attention to Negatives: Recall of only negative life events.

  • Poor Concentration: Affects functioning and self-worth.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• Behavioral Characteristics:

  • Includes compulsions and avoidance of certain stimuli which is negatively reinforced.

• Emotional Characteristics:

  • Feelings of guilt, disgust, depression, and anxiety about irrational obsessions.

• Cognitive Characteristics:

  • Recognition of excessive anxiety and development of cognitive strategies to cope.

The Behavioral Approach to Explaining Phobias

• Mowrer's Theory: Phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained via operant conditioning.

• Little Albert Experiment: Demonstrated fear association (white rat + loud noise = fear).

  • Advantages: Good at explaining the mechanism of phobia development and maintenance.

  • Strength of Systematic Desensitization: Helps prevent negative reinforcement from avoidance by exposing the patient to the harmless stimulus.

• Limitations:

  • Alternatives such as Buck and Seligman suggest the role of safety and evolutionary preparedness in phobia acquisition.

The Cognitive Approach to Explaining Depression

• Beck’s Theory: Cognitive vulnerability leads to depression through faulty information processing and the cognitive triad (negative thoughts about self, world, and future).

  • Supporting Evidence: Correlation between cognitive vulnerability and postnatal depression.

• Ellis’ ABC Model: Activating event leads to irrational belief resulting in emotional consequence.

  • Limitations: Not comprehensive for all types of depression.

The Biological Approach to Treating OCD

• SSRIs: Help increase serotonin levels by blocking reuptake, effective for treating OCD.

• Tricyclics/SNRIs: Similar effects; used for those unresponsive to SSRIs.

• Limitations: Side effects can hinder patient quality of life.

• Strengths: Cost-effective and less disruptive compared to psychological therapies.

Treatment Approaches

• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Challenges and replaces irrational thoughts, involving patient participation in monitoring their own thoughts and experiences.

  • Supporting Evidence: Effectiveness shown in a study with adolescents diagnosed with depression.

  • Limitations: May not suit those with severe depression who lack motivation.

• Comparative Effectiveness: Combined treatments (CBT + medication) have shown improved outcomes over singular approaches.