Mughal Empire Study Notes

Ruling the Indian Subcontinent

  • The complexity of ruling a diverse territory like the Indian subcontinent in the Middle Ages.

  • The Mughals established an empire contrasting with their predecessors, expanding significantly from Agra and Delhi.

  • By the seventeenth century, they controlled almost the entire subcontinent.

  • Imposition of administration and governance structures that have left a lasting political legacy.

  • The contemporary connection: the Prime Minister of India addresses the nation from the Red Fort in Delhi, historically a residence for Mughal emperors.

Who Were the Mughals?

  • Ancestry and Heritage

    • The Mughals descended from two historic lineages: Genghis Khan (mother's side) and Timur (father's side).

    • Genghis Khan (died 1227) was a Mongol ruler associated with vast conquests in China and Central Asia.

    • Timur (died 1404) ruled Iran, Iraq, and modern-day Turkey.

  • Cultural Identity

    • The Mughals preferred not to be labeled as Mughal or Mongol due to the negative connotations of Genghis Khan's legacy, including associated massacres and rivalries with the Uzbegs.

    • Pride in their Timurid ancestry, particularly because Timur had conquered Delhi in 1398.

    • Mughal emperors commissioned paintings celebrating their lineage, illustrating the connection to Timur.

Mughal Military Campaigns

  • Babur

    • First Mughal emperor (1526-1530), became ruler of Ferghana at just 12 years old.

    • Lost his ancestral throne to the Uzbegs, later captured Kabul in 1504.

    • Achieved a significant victory at Panipat in 1526 against the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, capturing Delhi and Agra.

  • Major Military Campaigns Table

    • Babur (1526-1530)

    • 1526: Defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat.

    • 1527: Defeated Rana Sanga at Khanua.

    • 1528: Conquered Rajputs at Chanderi, solidified control over Agra and Delhi.

    • Akbar (1556-1605)

    • Ascended at age 13, reign divided into three distinctive periods.

      • (1) 1556-1570: Gained independence, launched military campaigns against Suris and Afghans, captured key territories.

      • (2) 1570-1585: Campaigns in Gujarat and the east, faced revolt in 1579-1580.

      • (3) 1585-1605: Expanded empire into the north-west and the Deccan; significant expansions led to conflicts.

    • Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556)

    • Divided inheritance; suffered losses against Sher Khan and fled to Iran.

    • Regained Delhi in 1555 with Safavid help but died shortly after due to an accident.

    • Jahangir (1605-1627)

    • Continued military campaigns initiated by Akbar, faced challenges from various groups including Sikhs, Ahoms, and Ahmadnagar.

    • Shah Jahan (1627-1658)

    • Continued expansion in Deccan, faced conflicts over succession leading to his imprisonment.

    • Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

    • Engaged in numerous campaigns, faced significant revolts from various groups including the Marathas and Sikhs, leading to his difficult reign.

Mughal Traditions of Succession

  • Custodial Inheritance

    • Mughals followed coparcenary inheritance, where all sons shared the estate, contrasting with primogeniture.

    • Tension between family members leading to rebellions; questions of fairness between succession methods.

Relations with Other Rulers

  • Rajput Marriages

    • Many Rajputs allied with Mughal rulers through strategic marriages, bringing positions of power but also resistance from those opposing Mughal authority.

    • Historical intermarriages: Jahangir's mother was Kachhwaha, and Shah Jahan's mother was Rathor—both significant Rajput clans.

Military Organization: Mansabdars and Jagirdars

  • Mansabdars

    • Nobles ranked by their zat, influencing status and revenue.

    • Shift in demographics over time, with an increase in numbers of mansabdars especially in Aurangzeb's reign, leading to financial strains.

    • Mansabdars' responsibilities included maintaining cavalry, with their military obligations tied to their rank.

  • Jagirdars

    • Unlike muqtis, most did not reside in or manage their jagirs but received revenue assignments, causing tensions in administration.

    • Financial mismatches between revenue granted and collected led to struggles for income among the nobility and exploitation of peasantry.

Taxation and Revenue System

  • Zabt

    • Main taxation system on peasant produce.

    • Established by Todar Mal via a detailed survey, fixing cash taxes on crops based on data collected during 1570-1580.

  • Zamindars

    • Local intermediaries managing tax collections but sometimes leading to peasant uprisings against the Mughal empire.

    • Peasant revolts emerged as significant challenges in the late 17th century.

Historic Accounts: Akbar Nama and Ain-i Akbari

  • Akbar Nama

    • Chronicled by Abul Fazl, detailing Akbar’s reign, ancestry, and administration.

  • Ain-i Akbari

    • A detailed account of governance, including administration, economy, culture, and demographic statistics of the empire.

Akbar's Policies on Governance

  • Administrative Structure

    • The division of the empire into provinces (subas), administered by subadars overseeing political and military functions, supported by various officers to maintain order and enforce laws.

  • Religious Tolerance - Sulh-i Kul

    • Akbar's doctrine of universal peace, promoting ethical governance transcending religious divisions.

    • Akbar's engagement with scholars of various faiths facilitated a tolerant atmosphere, preventing sectarian conflicts.

Economic Conditions in the 17th Century

  • Economic Prosperity vs. Inequality

    • While the state was wealthy, poverty persisted among peasantry and artisans. Only 445 high-ranking mansabdars out of 8,000 controlled a majority of the empire's revenue.

  • Emergence of Regional Powers

    • As Mughal authority weakened, provincial elites consolidated power, leading to the formation of new dynasties, such as those in Hyderabad and Awadh. These dynamics will be addressed further in Chapter 10.