Chapter 14 Introductory Essay: 1960-1968 Notes

Societal Change from 1960 to 1968

• Context
  • Optimism at the start of the 1960s due to a strong industrial and consumer economy.
  • Anti-communist consensus against the Soviet Union despite nuclear war fears.
  • Efforts by African Americans and women to achieve greater equality.
  • John F. Kennedy represented a new generation and called for a shared vision of progress.
• Shifts
  • Political, economic, and foreign policy consensus began to break down by the end of the decade.
  • Divisions over the Vietnam War, challenges to the status quo by social movements, economic struggles, and distrust in politicians and the government.
  • Increasing fragmentation of American society.

Election of 1960

• John F. Kennedy
  • Born in 1917, grandson of Irish-Catholic immigrants.
  • Father, Joseph P. Kennedy, aimed for a son to become president.
  • Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1946 and the U.S. Senate in 1952.
  • Secured the Democratic presidential nomination in 1960.
  • Portrayed as handsome, Harvard-educated, a war hero, and exuding "vigor."
  • Campaign slogan: "New Frontier," promising to "get the country moving again."
• Richard M. Nixon
  • Republican Party’s presidential nominee in 1960.
  • World War II Navy veteran.
  • Elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and the U.S. Senate in 1950.
  • Selected as Dwight D. Eisenhower’s running mate in 1952.
  • Nixon's background contrasted with Kennedy’s privileged early life.
  • Nickname: “Tricky Dick” due to ambition and controversial campaign tactics.
  • Aligned with the "Sun Belt" region, experiencing rapid population growth and conservative-leaning tendencies.
• Platforms
  • Both candidates were political centrists and committed "Cold Warriors."
• Impact of Television
  • The emerging dominance of television significantly impacted the 1960 presidential race.
  • Kennedy made a better impression in televised debates, appearing younger and more appealing.
  • Kennedy's narrow victory was partly attributed to his telegenic image.
  • Less than a single percentage point separated the candidates’ shares of the popular vote.

Kennedy's Inauguration

• Took office on January 20, 1961.
• Inaugural address emphasized youthful idealism and public service: “Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.”
• Foreign policy pledge: Prepared “to pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty.”

Foreign Policy in the Kennedy Administration

• Missile Gap
  • Kennedy claimed the Eisenhower administration had allowed the Soviet Union to surpass the U.S. in intercontinental ballistic missiles.
  • In reality, the U.S. was ahead, though the Soviets aimed to close the gap.
• Cuba
  • Fidel Castro, a Marxist, led a communist revolution in Cuba.
  • Overthrew a U.S.-backed dictatorship in 1959 and formed an alliance with the Soviet Union.
  • The U.S. viewed a communist state near its borders as a Cold War defeat and a threat.
• Bay of Pigs Invasion
  • The Eisenhower administration planned an invasion of anti-communist Cuban exiles to overthrow Castro.
  • On April 17, 1961, 1,400 invaders landed at the Bay of Pigs and were defeated by Castro’s forces.
  • Kennedy took public blame for the setback.
• Vienna Summit Meeting
  • In June 1961, Kennedy met with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev.
  • Khrushchev attempted to intimidate Kennedy after the Bay of Pigs incident.
• Cuban Missile Crisis
  • In 1962, U.S. spy planes discovered Soviet missile bases under construction in Cuba.
  • These bases would give the Soviet Union first-strike capabilities, undermining mutual assured destruction (MAD).
  • Kennedy blockaded Cuba, and Khrushchev eventually withdrew the missiles.
  • Kennedy secretly pledged to remove U.S. missiles from Turkey and refrain from invading Cuba.

Vietnam

• Early Involvement
  • Communist insurgency in South Vietnam seemed minor initially.
  • The U.S. increased aid to South Vietnam after its division in 1954.
  • By Kennedy's inauguration, there were 800 U.S. military advisors and two U.S. combat deaths.
• Deteriorating Situation
  • South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem, installed through a fraudulent election, was an unpopular autocrat.
  • The Communist-organized National Liberation Front (NLF), or Viet Cong, gained strength.
  • Diem faced opposition from Buddhists, who protested and committed suicides.
  • Kennedy felt compelled to support the Saigon government due to fears of another "Who Lost China?" controversy.
• Counterinsurgency Doctrine
  • American strategists believed they could counter guerrillas with trained units using unconventional tactics.
  • U.S. Army Special Forces (Green Berets) trained troops with air mobility via helicopters.
  • The Battle of Ap Bac on January 2, 1963, demonstrated the failure of counterinsurgency theory.
  • Viet Cong soldiers held off larger Saigon forces with superior equipment.
• Increased U.S. Involvement
  • The Kennedy administration increased military advisors to 17,000 by November 1963.
  • The political situation in Saigon worsened, and Kennedy’s advisors encouraged a coup.
  • Diem was arrested and executed on November 2, 1963, shocking Kennedy.
  • The coup did not bring political stability.
• Prospects for Withdrawal
  • Some claim Kennedy considered winding down U.S. involvement by the fall of 1963.
  • No compelling evidence supports this, given political risks and the need to maintain American credibility.
• Continued Commitment
  • On the eve of 1964, the United States remained committed to opposing Communist expansion.

Domestic Policy in the Kennedy Administration

• Limited Domestic Reform
  • Kennedy initially paid little attention to domestic reform.
  • Supported measures in the postwar liberal agenda.
  • Congress passed the Area Redeployment Act (1961) and the Manpower Development and Training Act (1962).
  • These measures had little impact on economic growth or poverty reduction.
• Embracing Keynesianism
  • Kennedy’s economic advisors advocated for using government fiscal policy to stimulate the economy.
  • Initially cautious, Kennedy embraced the “New Economics” or Keynesianism.
  • A tax cut aimed to stimulate businesses and consumer spending.
• Poverty and Inequality
  • Many were unable to benefit from the expanding economy, especially in declining areas and among racial minorities.
  • Michael Harrington’s book, The Other America: Poverty in the United States (1962), highlighted widespread poverty.
  • Poverty was defined by poor health, substance abuse, mental distress, and lowered aspirations.
  • Harrington argued that society must help the poor before they can help themselves.
• War on Poverty
  • Kennedy asked his economic advisors to prepare legislation for a “war on poverty” in the fall of 1963.
  • Kennedy was assassinated before he could lobby for the plan.

Assassination of John F. Kennedy

• November 22, 1963: Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas.
• Lee Harvey Oswald was charged with the murder.
• Two days later, Oswald was killed by Jack Ruby.
• The Warren Commission concluded that Oswald acted alone.
• Kennedy’s administration was idealized as a "Camelot" before the turbulence that followed.

Civil Rights Movement

• Greensboro Sit-ins
  • February 1, 1960: Four African American freshmen sat at a Woolworth’s lunch counter in Greensboro, NC, and were refused service.
  • The students sought justice by "putting their bodies on the line."
• Spread of Sit-ins
  • Sit-ins spread to over 50 southern cities involving more than 50,000 participants.
  • Protesters faced violent attacks by white mobs.
  • Northern stores picketed Woolworth’s outlets in sympathy.
  • Woolworth’s and other stores desegregated lunch counters.
• Formation of SNCC
  • In April 1960, 200 veterans of the sit-ins formed the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).
  • SNCC, led mostly by young blacks, was at the forefront of the southern freedom struggle.
• Freedom Riders
  • The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) launched the Freedom Riders campaign.
  • Seven blacks and six whites boarded a Greyhound bus in Washington, DC, to integrate buses and waiting rooms.
  • They faced violent attacks in South Carolina and Alabama.
  • Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy asked the Freedom Riders to call off the campaign.
  • SNCC continued the campaign, and hundreds were jailed.
  • Robert Kennedy helped negotiate an agreement to desegregate bus facilities.
• Birmingham Campaign
  • The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) planned a campaign to challenge discrimination in Birmingham, Alabama.
  • Eugene "Bull" Connor enforced rigid segregation policies.
  • The SCLC led black church members in daily protests, resulting in hundreds of arrests, including Martin Luther King Jr.
  • High school and elementary school children joined the protests, facing police dogs and fire hoses.
  • The media coverage shocked Americans and exposed the nature of segregation.
  • The events in Birmingham were a turning point in the struggle for equal rights.
• Civil Rights Act and March on Washington
  • President Kennedy renewed support for a civil rights bill.
  • Dr. King led the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, drawing 25 million protesters on August 28.
  • King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech.

Women’s Movement

• Inspiration from Civil Rights
  • The civil rights movement inspired a “rights revolution” in the 1960s.
• Second-Wave Feminism
  • Women’s fight for equality had waned after the Nineteenth Amendment.
  • A “second wave” feminist movement emerged, sparked by Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique (1963).
  • Friedan described a "problem with no name", the dissatisfaction of white suburban women with their lives.
  • The unequal relationship of men and women was grounded in the "mystique" that women’s primary function was domestic.
• National Organization for Women (NOW)
  • In 1966, female activists formed the National Organization for Women (NOW).
  • NOW’s initial approach was litigation and lobbying.
  • Younger women joined NOW and pushed for more radical tactics.
• Women’s Liberation
  • Women’s caucuses and workshops sprang up in Students for a Democratic Society and other groups.
  • Women’s rights groups described their political outlook as "women’s liberation."
• "The Personal Is Political"
  • A key belief was that “the personal is political”, challenging inequalities in relationships and at home.
  • This was one of the more enduring changes of the 1960s.

The 1964 Election

• Lyndon B. Johnson
  • Became president after Kennedy’s assassination on November 22, 1963.
  • Johnson was a politically connected Texan rather than an East Coast elite.
  • Elected to the House of Representatives in 1937 and to the Senate in 1948.
  • Master of the legislative process, becoming Senate majority leader in 1955.
• Republican Party
  • The Republican Party nominated conservative senator Barry Goldwater from Arizona.
  • Goldwater’s declaration of "extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice!" was not well received.
• Johnson’s Victory
  • Johnson called for a "Great Society", benefited from a strong economy, and took a tough stance on communism.
  • Won 61 percent of the popular vote, the greatest landslide in presidential elections.
  • Democrats secured strong majorities in Congress.
  • Goldwater won five states in the Sun Belt, signaling a shift in the Democratic Solid South.

The Great Society

• Liberal Legislation
  • Johnson secured passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Kennedy’s tax cut.
  • Signed the Economic Opportunity Act, fulfilling his call for "an unconditional war on poverty."
• Programs
  • Programs were not on the scale of the New Deal.
  • Designed to offer a “hand up not a handout” to the poor.
  • Included job-training and childhood enrichment programs administered by local community action agencies.
  • Separate from traditional welfare programs but included the Food Stamp program.
  • VISTA, a domestic Peace Corps, enlisted volunteers for social service work in poor communities.
• Legislative Success
  • In the first six months of 1965, Johnson proposed 87 bills to Congress, which passed 84 of them.
  • Included Medicare and Medicaid.
  • The Voting Rights Act followed the Civil Rights Act.
  • Signed the Clean Water Act and the Clean Air Act.
  • The 1965 Immigration Act ended discriminatory quota systems, increasing immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

The Warren Court

• Broadening Constitutional Rights
  • The Supreme Court broadened constitutional rights under Chief Justice Earl Warren.
  • Decisions encouraged new social movements.
• Controversial Decisions
  • The court became embroiled in divided politics, leading to public debate about its role.
  • In Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), the court struck down a ban on disseminating information about contraception, citing a “right to privacy”.
  • This expansive definition of rights led to Roe v. Wade (1973), which overturned state laws banning abortion.
  • Conservatives challenged these cases as undermining traditional morality.
• Rights of the Accused
  • In Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the court decided that all accused persons are entitled to an attorney.
  • In Miranda v. Arizona (1966), police must inform the accused of their rights before questioning.
  • Critics argued the court was coddling criminals.
• Legislative Apportionment
  • In Baker v. Carr (1962), the court decided it had jurisdiction over political questions related to legislative districts.
  • Reynolds v. Sims (1964) insisted that districts should be equal in population, according to “one man, one vote.”
• Impact and Polarization
  • The court helped advance individual liberties and constitutional rights.
  • It contributed to polarization and caused some to question the authority of “unelected judges.”

President Lyndon Johnson and Vietnam

• Escalation of the Conflict
  • Despite assurances, Johnson considered escalating the conflict after the 1964 election.
  • The Gulf of Tonkin incident on August 4, 1964, led to retaliatory airstrikes against North Vietnam.
  • Johnson secured congressional approval of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, serving as a functional declaration of war.
  • The administration had prepared this resolution since May.
  • Congress was unaware of the Maddox’s role in raids along the North Vietnamese coastline.
  • The “Pentagon Papers” revealed a pattern of deception by successive administrations.
• Increased American Involvement
  • In the spring of 1965, Johnson initiated Operation Rolling Thunder and dispatched troops to engage in combat.
  • The number of American troops increased to nearly 500,000 by 1967.
  • American casualties rose dramatically.

Public Unrest and the Tet Offensive

• Growing Unease
  • Despite Johnson’s claims of progress, the American public grew increasingly uneasy.
  • The Tet Offensive at the end of January 1968 undermined public support.
  • The Communists attacked Saigon and other cities across South Vietnam.
  • The U.S. lost over 2,000 soldiers in February, the highest monthly death toll to date.
  • The Communists suffered a military defeat but achieved a psychological victory.
  • The shock led to Johnson’s decision not to seek reelection in 1968.

Student Movements

• Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)
  • In 1962, student delegates adopted the Port Huron Statement, a declaration of generational identity.
  • SDS questioned the authority and legitimacy of society’s institutions.
  • Advocated a “participatory democracy”.
• Freedom Summer
  • In 1964, college students traveled to Mississippi to participate in Freedom Summer, a voter registration campaign.
  • Three volunteers were murdered by the Ku Klux Klan.
• Free Speech Movement (FSM)
  • The University of California, Berkeley, banned on-campus political activities.
  • The Free Speech Movement (FSM) challenged the ban, led by Mario Savio.
  • FSM used civil rights tactics, including civil disobedience.
  • Students occupied Sproul Hall and were arrested.
• Anti-War Movement
  • The war in Vietnam became a major issue for the student movement.
  • In April 1965, SDS organized a rally and march in Washington, DC, drawing 20,000 people.
  • Draft resistance grew, with young men refusing to carry draft cards or submit to the draft.
• March on the Pentagon
  • The slogan for the October 1967 March on the Pentagon was “From Protest to Resistance.”
  • 75,000 protesters gathered in Washington, DC.
  • Thousands marched to the Pentagon, and some broke through military police lines.
  • Protesters included the “Yippies,” who used public theater to mock military institutions.

Counterculture

• Baby Boom
  • The generation born between 1946 and 1964 made up the “baby boom.”
  • Retailers catered to consumer demands for necessities and diversions.
• Rise of Youth Culture
  • Higher education expanded, and a college degree became a rite of passage.
  • Adolescence was extended, and young people defined their own tastes.
  • A counterculture or “youth culture” took shape, at odds with middle-class culture.
• Influences
  • The “Beat Generation” influenced attitudes regarding sex, race, drugs, and music.
  • The folk music craze contributed to a sense of generational identity.
  • The Beatles evolved from a rock band to psychedelically garbed musicians with songs about peace and love.
  • Countercultural enthusiasms shaped post-1960s American culture.

Civil Rights and Black Power

• Voting Rights Campaign
  • After the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the civil rights movement campaigned for voting rights.
  • In 1965, the SCLC launched a campaign in Selma, Alabama.
  • Marchers were attacked by state police and a sheriff’s posse on March 7, 1965.
  • A second march to Montgomery reached the Alabama capital, 25,000 strong.
  • President Johnson proposed and signed voting rights legislation on August 6.
• Watts Riots
  • Five days after the Voting Rights Act, rioting broke out in Watts, Los Angeles, sparked by the arrest of Marquette Frye.
  • The riot resulted in 34 deaths, 1,000 injuries, and 4,000 arrests.
  • Rioting spread to other cities in 1967.
• Black Power Movement
  • The early integrationist vision of the civil rights movement was challenged by younger black militants like Stokely Carmichael.
  • Carmichael popularized the slogan Black Power in 1966.
  • Young activists were drawn to racial separatism, such as that preached by Malcolm X.
• Black Panther Party
  • In 1966, Huey Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense in Oakland, California.
  • The Panthers captured media attention with their militant style and slogans.
  • The radicalism and violence divided African Americans.

Rise of the Conservative Movement

• Shift in Political Landscape
  • Liberalism won some victories but conservatives established themselves as a unified and potent political force in the 1960s.
  • Conservatism became a dominant force in national politics.
• Sun Belt Conservatism
  • Conservatives reinforced the party’s conservative direction in the Sun Belt states.
  • Goldwater won five Deep South states, shifting loyalties from the Democrats.
• White Working-Class Voters
  • Urban, white, working-class voters began to desert the Democrats.
  • They questioned the growth of the welfare state and opposed the decisions of the Warren Court.
• Ronald Reagan
  • In California, Ronald Reagan was elected governor in 1966.
  • By 1980, Reagan represented the rise and triumph of the conservative movement.
• Conclusion
  • The 1960s were a tumultuous decade, with the breakdown of consensus and growing distrust of American institutions.