Forensic Science: History and Foundations Notes

Defining Forensic Science

  • Forensic Science is the application of science to the criminal and civil laws that are enforced by law enforcement agencies in a criminal justice system.

  • Encompasses many different jobs.

  • American Academy of Forensic Science (11 sections):

    • Criminalistics

    • Digital and Multimedia Science

    • Engineering Science

    • General

    • Jurisprudence

    • Odontology

    • Physical Anthropology

    • Psychiatry/Behavioral Science

    • Questioned Documents

    • Toxicology

    • Pathology/Biology

  • The CSI Effect: Unrealistic expectations of a forensic and criminal investigation.

    • Popular shows referenced: CSI: Miami, Bones, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit

    • Unofficial companion: Randee Dawn and Susan Green

  • Expectations vs Reality: Visuals from the slides contrast fictional portrayals with real-world limitations (illustrated by captions like "Expectations vs Reality" and notes on small sample sizes/typical uncertainties).

History and Development of Forensic Science

  • 3rd Century China: Yi Yu Ji (A Collection of Criminal Cases)

    • An experiment to verify a woman’s account of her husband’s death.

    • Early attempt to apply forensic reasoning to criminal cases.

  • Early limitations: limited knowledge of anatomy and physiology hampered development of forensics.

  • Forensic toxicology milestones:

    • Arsenic detection in 1775

    • 1814: Mathieu Orfila, ‘Father of Forensic Toxicology,’ wrote a treatise on the detection of poisons and their effects on animals, solidifying forensic toxicology as a legitimate science.

  • 1839: First toxicological evidence used in trial (Scotland).

  • 1863: First presumptive test for blood created.

  • 1879: Bertillon System used body measurements to identify individuals.

    • Note mentions a future: a humorous/placeholder reference to a later unit on Fingerprints.

  • 1892: Francis Galton published Finger Prints, providing statistical proof of the uniqueness of fingerprints.

  • Sherlock Holmes (1887): Fictional influence on popularizing scientific processes and methods in investigations.

  • 1901: Blood grouping discovered by Karl Landsteiner (A, B, AB, O).

  • 1915: First procedures of blood grouping used in criminal investigations.

  • 1910: Document Examination procedures developed by Albert Osborne.

  • 1910: Edmond Locard starts a police laboratory in an attic with 2 assistants, a microscope and a spectrometer.

    • Locard’s Principle of Exchange: When two objects come into contact, cross-transfer of materials occurs.

  • U.S. Army Col Calvin Goddard: Developed methods for determining if a particular firearm was used in a crime; bullet comparisons.

  • 1984: First DNA profiling test by Alec Jeffreys; most significant modern advancement in forensic science.

    • Case: Colin Pitchfork, murderer of two young girls; identified by DNA and also the first case to prove innocence by DNA.

  • Notable historical context: Goddard’s work and correspondence with J. Edgar Hoover; Hoover directed for forensic courses and the FBI’s Technical Crime Laboratory (1932).

  • Saint Valentine’s Day Massacre: Goddard’s role in testing bullets; related images and wall display in a museum context.

Notable Figures, Cases, and Concepts

  • Sherlock Holmes (1887): Popularized scientific processes and procedures in fiction.

  • Locard’s Exchange Principle: Cross-transfer of materials occurs when objects come into contact.

  • Karl Landsteiner: Blood groups A, B, AB, O; foundational for forensic serology.

  • Alec Jeffreys: Developed DNA profiling in 1984; highlighted by the Colin Pitchfork case.

  • Calvin Goddard: Pioneered firearm identification and bullet comparison analyses; crucial in the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre investigations; collaborated with FBI interests.

  • J. Edgar Hoover: Directed FBI’s development of forensic capability; activated technical crime laboratory initiatives.

  • Francis Galton: Pioneered studies in fingerprint analysis and eugenics (see ethical implications below).

  • Orfila: Father of Forensic Toxicology; advanced toxicology as a discipline.

  • Bertillon: Introduced the system of anthropometric measurements for identification.

  • Important legal framework milestones: Frye Rule vs. Daubert Standard (see below under admissibility).

The CSI Effect and Public Perception

  • The CSI Effect refers to unrealistic expectations about forensic science due to television portrayals.

  • Common misunderstandings include overestimating the speed, certainty, and comprehensiveness of lab results in real cases.

Crime Laboratories in the United States

  • 1923: LAPD established the first U.S. crime lab (in Berkeley, CA, per slide notes).

  • 1948: University of California, Berkeley established the School of Criminology to formalize criminology and criminalistics.

  • 1932: FBI, under J. Edgar Hoover, established a national crime laboratory to provide forensic services to all law enforcement agencies; today the world’s largest forensic crime laboratory.

  • Four Major Federal Crime Laboratories:

    • Federal Bureau of Investigation (Department of Justice)

    • Drug Enforcement Agency (Department of Justice)

    • Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (Department of Justice)

    • U.S. Postal Inspection Service

  • State Crime Laboratories: Most states maintain crime laboratory systems, typically with regional and satellite laboratories operating under a central state laboratory.

  • Local Crime Laboratories: Operate at the county and municipal levels (not under the state).

Basic Services of Crime Laboratories

  • Physical Science Unit: Analyzes physical evidence (e.g., paint, glass, drugs, explosives, soil).

  • Limitations in Crime Laboratory Services (3):

    • Variations in local laws

    • Capabilities and functions of the organizations overseeing the laboratories

    • Budget and staff limitations

  • Biology Unit: Biologists and biochemists; analyzes and profiles DNA; identifies and compares botanical samples (wood, leaves, plants, pollen).

  • Firearms Unit: Examines firearms, discharged bullets, cartridge cases; detection of gunshot residue; ballistic analysis.

  • Document Examination Unit: Studies handwriting and typed writing on questioned documents; determines authenticity and source.

  • Photography Unit: Uses specialized photography to examine evidence; infrared, X-ray, ultraviolet techniques; prepares photographic exhibits for courtroom presentation.

Optional Services of Crime Laboratories

  • Toxicology Unit: Examines bodily fluids and organs to determine the presence of drugs.

  • Latent Fingerprint Unit: Examines latent fingerprints (prints left by secretions of oils in the fingers; not normally visible to the eye).

  • Polygraph Unit: Lie detector tests.

  • Voiceprint Analysis: Analysis of telephone threats and voice-recorded messages; uses a sound spectrograph to translate voice into a visual graphic display.

  • Crime-Scene Investigation: Collection of physical evidence from crime scenes; involves trained civilian and police personnel; emphasizes securing and recording everything.

  • Other Forensic Science Services: Forensic Psychiatry (relationship between behavior and legal proceedings; evaluation of disorders; competency for trial) and Forensic Odontology (dental analysis to aid in identifying individuals; bite mark analysis).

Functions of the Forensic Scientist

  • Analyzing Physical Evidence: Use of the Scientific Method—the process that provides strict guidelines for careful and systematic collection, organization, and analysis of information.

  • Training in recognition, collection, and preservation of physical evidence: bagging and tagging, ensuring proper, repeatable, systematic collection.

  • Making a Scientific Hypothesis: A possible explanation based on limited evidence that can be tested.

  • Admissibility of Evidence: Whether evidence is scientifically valid and admissible in court; two main standards discussed:

    • Frye Rule

    • Daubert Standard

  • The Trial Judge’s Role: Responsible for the admissibility of scientific evidence; at the federal level the judge has primary responsibility; states and local governments have been slower to adopt more uniform standards.

  • Criteria judges consider for admissibility (Daubert/related aspects):

    • Whether the science has been tested

    • Whether the science has been peer reviewed and published

    • The potential rate of error in the science

    • Existence and maintenance of standards controlling the science

    • Whether the science or method is widely accepted within the scientific community

  • Providing Expert Testimony: The trial judge determines if a witness is an expert; testimony must be factual and not based on personal opinions.

Discussion: Expert Witnesses and Testimony

  • Discussion prompt: Expert witnesses must testify in person rather than submitting an affidavit of findings. Why is this important?

Pseudo-Science and Ethical Considerations

  • Pseudo-Science Assignment: Phrenology

    • Task: Create a PowerPoint based on one of 33 phrenology charts; find 6 fictional characters with similar characteristics to chosen charts.

    • Argument: Entertainment industry may contribute to stereotyping people by physical appearance.

    • Group must email the presentation with all names on the title slide to receive a grade.

  • The slide introduces the dangers of pseudo-science and the importance of critical evaluation in forensic science.

Ethical, Philosophical, and Practical Implications

  • Eugenics and its legacy:

    • Francis Galton’s Eugenics Movement: Belief that desirable traits could be enhanced and undesirable traits could be bred out.

    • Buck v. Bell (1927) legalized forced sterilization in the United States (8-1 Supreme Court decision).

    • The movement proposed sterilizing the bottom tier of society; ~70,000 people sterilized in the U.S.; not overturned until the 1970s.

    • Supreme Court upheld sterilization despite significant ethical concerns; example highlights the misuse of science to justify social policy.

  • The Dark Sides of Science: Eugenics represents a cautionary tale about misapplication of scientific ideas to social policy and the potential for abuse.

  • Critical takeaway: Forensic science must adhere to rigorous validation, peer review, and ethical standards to prevent harm and ensure justice.

Online Resources (Selected)

  • Forensic Firearm Identification

  • Carpenter’s Forensic Science Resource

  • CSI Network

  • Crimes and Clues

  • Questioned Documents Examination

Connections to Foundational Principles and Real-World Relevance

  • Locard’s Exchange Principle remains foundational to crime scene analysis and trace evidence discussion.

  • The progression from basic serology (blood typing) to DNA profiling represents a paradigm shift in forensic certainty and courtroom outcomes.

  • Understanding the admissibility standards (Frye vs. Daubert) is crucial for evaluating which forensic methods can be presented in court.

  • Ethical considerations, including the historical misuses of science (e.g., eugenics) underscore the responsibility of forensic scientists to uphold rigorous methodology and social responsibility.

  • The integration of multiple laboratory disciplines (physical science, biology, chemistry, firearms, document examination, photography) illustrates the interdisciplinary nature of modern forensic science and its practical impact on solving crimes and delivering justice.