6.5 The Concert of Europe and European Conservatism Study Notes
THE CONCERT OF EUROPE AND EUROPEAN CONSERVATISM
I. Introduction to the Concert of Europe
After the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the four great victorious powers—Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia—along with the losing power, France, had the opportunity to reshape Europe.
Key Questions Presented at the Congress of Vienna:
What should the new Europe look like?
Who would govern it?
What measures could be taken to prevent a repeat of the Napoleonic calamity?
Conservatism and Tradition as Prevailing Ideologies:
The ideology of conservatism and tradition prevailed in the short term across most of Europe.
II. Conservatism Defined
Definition: Conservatism is a principle centered around maintaining traditional power structures.
Components:
An elite class tends to the needs of the masses.
Support for monarchy, aristocracy, and privilege.
Political Goals: Support for monarchy with some contributions from the elite.
Economic Goals: Wealth and property remain concentrated with the wealthy, ensuring the poor do not become so impoverished that they rebel.
Social Goals: Minimal government expenditure on social services; religion often serves as a bulwark against radical change.
III. Key Figures in Conservatism
A. Edmund Burke
Dates: 1729-1797
Nationality: Irish/English Politician and Writer
Significant Work: "Reflections on the Revolution in France" (1792) is considered the definitive work on modern conservatism.
Preached Concepts:
Gradualism.
The importance of tradition for maintaining moral order.
The role of a powerful church.
Natural rights as attainable only through constitutional means.
Beliefs:
Opposed the view of man as a rational machine (as believed by Enlightenment thinkers), arguing instead that man is too complex and individualistic.
B. Klemens von Metternich
Dates: 1773-1859
Role: Notable as the Foreign Minister and later Chancellor of the Austrian Empire from 1809 to 1848.
Position: Represented traditional conservatism at the European level.
Opposition:
Opposed change on the grounds of nationalism and liberalism.
Influence:
Notably prominent leader at the Congress of Vienna and in the decades following.
IV. Conservatism in Various Countries
A. Conservatism in France
Bourbon Restoration (1815): The Bourbon family was re-established but faced difficulties in governance due to remnants from the radical revolution balanced against support from “Ultras” (Ultraroyalists).
Revolutions Timeline:
1830: Revolutions begin anew.
1848: The era of the French monarchy concludes.
Key Monarchs:
Louis XVIII (1814-1824): Established the Chamber of Peers and Chamber of Deputies as part of governance.
Charles X (1824-1830): A deeply religious supporter of the Ancien Régime, enacted Four Ordinances leading to the July Revolution.
Louis Philippe (1830-1848): Known as part of the July Monarchy, liberal ideologies emerged but failed to address the working man's needs.
B. Conservatism in Germany
Post-1815: Germany was consolidated into 39 states controlled primarily by Austria and Metternich.
Metternich's Opposition: Actively suppressed liberal and nationalist movements to maintain Austrian control.
By 1848, nationalist and liberal forces appeared unstoppable.
Key Events:
1815: German Confederation founded.
Frankfurt Assembly formed.
Formation of burschenschaften (student societies) advocating for national unity.
1819 Carlsbad Decrees enforced suppression of liberal groups.
1834: Creation of the Zollverein, facilitating commercial unification of German states, leading to increased Prussian power.
C. Conservatism in Russia
Russia focused on upholding traditional conservatism.
Key Leaders:
Alexander I (1801-1825)
Nicholas I (1825-1855)
Methods: Any opposition was subjected to brutal repression, including the Decembrists uprising in 1825.
D. Conservatism Rejected: Britain
Despite its conservative nature, Britain experienced a liberal shift that began in the 1700s.
Power Dynamics: Parliament grew in influence, and middle-class ideas gained precedence.
Key Events Leading to Change:
Post-war difficulties included unemployment and poor harvests.
1799 Combination Acts were seen as oppressive and failed to be repealed.
1815 Corn Laws imposed high duties on imported grain.
Significant events of protest and reform included the Coercion Act (1817), Peterloo Massacre (1819), and various political conspiracies.
E. Notable Legislative Changes in Britain
Repeal of the Test Acts in 1828, leading to Catholic Emancipation.
Great Reform Act (1832):
Expanded the electorate to encompass 20% of the population.
Redistributed parliamentary seats, effectively ending rotten boroughs.
Disenfranchisement of women further emphasized contrasting political ideologies.
Emergence of Political Parties:
Liberal Party: Advocated for parliamentary reform, free trade, and expanded electorate.
Conservative Party: Supported monarchy, imperialism, and mercantilism.
Reforms:
1833 Factory Act limited child labor.
Elementary Education Act of 1833 introduced educational reforms.
Abolition of slavery in British colonies finalized in 1833.
New Poor Law instituted a workhouse system.
Anti-Corn Law League:
Successful repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, reflecting the liberal shift.
V. Chartist Movement in Britain
Key Figures: William Lovett and Feargus O’Connor.
The Charter (1838): Demanded reforms including:
Annual elections to Parliament.
Universal male suffrage.
Implementation of a secret ballot.
Equal electoral districts.
Abolition of property qualifications for voting.
Payment for Members of Parliament (MPs).
Progress: All demands were met by 1920 except for the first one (annual elections).
VI. Political Landscape in Italy to 1848
Post-1815, Italy was divided into various independent states.
States included the Papal States, Piedmont/Sardinia, Two Sicilies, and land dominated by Austria.
Risorgimento: Movement aimed at Italian unification characterized by uprisings and attempts for constitutional governance.
Key Groups:
Carbonari: An organization behind uprisings in the 1820s.
Young Italy: Founded by Mazzini/Garibaldi focused on republicanism and unification.
March 1848: A wave of revolutions swept through Italy, striving for national unity.
VII. Greece to 1848
Part of the Ottoman Empire until its revolution (1821-1829).
Powers’ Posture: Focused on stability, leading to the emergence of the “Eastern Question.”
Key Events:
Battle of Navarino (1827), a significant naval engagement.
Treaty of London (1830) established Greek independence, followed by the enthronement of a Bavarian prince in 1832.
VIII. Political Developments in Spain to 1848
Ferdinand VII (1814-1833): His reign featured repression until the liberal revolution of 1820 and subsequent French intervention, which restored conservative order.
Loss of Spanish territories in the Americas by 1824 except for a few islands, affecting national power.
Isabella II (1833-1868): Reigns amidst conflicts between liberal constitutionalism and religious conservatism, known as the Carlist Wars.
IX. The Concert of Europe
Alliances and Agreements:
Holy Alliance (1815): Formed by Austria, Russia, and Prussia to uphold conservative values.
Quadruple Alliance (1815-1818): Included Britain for maintaining stability.
Quintuple Alliance: Expansion to include France to assist conservative efforts.
Purpose: To maintain a conservative Europe led by Metternich and intervene where necessary to prevent upheaval.
X. Key Conferences of the Concert of Europe
Aix-la-Chapelle (1818): Agreement to withdraw occupying armies from France.
Troppau (1820) & Laibach (1821): Austrian intervention in Italy to suppress revolutionary movements.
Verona (1822): French intervention in Spain to restore conservatism.
London (1832): Acknowledgment of Greek independence.
Overall Essence: The primary goal was to maintain the balance of power while reinstating conservative ideals, though it faced challenges and failures in execution.