Independent Africa: Angola

Angola: Independent Africa

Cold War Influence

From the mid-1970s, the Cold War between the USA and the USSR became a 'hot war' in Angola.
The challenges of newly independent Angola were exploited by the superpowers (USA, USSR) and their allies to expand their spheres of influence.
The Angolan Civil War, which began in the mid-1970s, was fought along Cold War battle lines.

Geography of Angola

Angola is a large country south of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) on the Atlantic Ocean with a long coastline.
Namibia lies to the south, and Zambia to the west.
The capital city is Luanda, situated on the coast of Luanda Bay.

Angola Under Portuguese Rule

Portugal colonized Angola starting in 1575 with the establishment of São Paulo de Loanda (Luanda).
This led to conflict with the Ndongo Kingdom. The Portuguese named the colony Angola after the Ndongo word for ruler, “ngola”.
The colony's boundaries were established at the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. Portugal controlled mostly coastal areas but was allocated inland territory.
Rubber, food crops, and cattle were farmed, and ivory was acquired. Mines and railways were established.
Angola's exports brought wealth to Portugal.
After World War II, Angolans sought independence, but the fascist Portuguese government under António Salazar refused.
Political parties formed from 1953 onwards, leading to three main liberation movements.
António Salazar supported the Nazis during WWII.

Liberation Movements

MPLA

Founded in 1956 as Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola (People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola).
Had strong communist roots.
Received support from the Ambundu people and educated Angolans in Luanda.
In 1962, Agostinho Neto became the leader.
Neto was born in Luanda, studied medicine in Portugal, and was arrested for political activism.
Supported by the USSR, Cuba, East Germany, Romania, and Tanzania.
SWAPO (South West African People’s Organisation) also supported the MPLA.

FNLA

Holden Roberto founded a political party in 1954, which became the Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola (National Front for the Liberation of Angola) in 1962.
Based on Bakongo nationalism initially.
Sought control of northern Angola.
Roberto sought support from Mobutu in the DRC/Zaire, leading to support from the West.
Supported by the DRC/Zaire, the USA, China, France, and Israel.

UNITA

Jonas Savimbi initially sought to join the MPLA and FNLA but was rejected by the MPLA and became frustrated with the FNLA's focus on northern Angola.
Founded the União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola) in 1966.
Had support in south-eastern Angola, particularly among the Ovimbundu people.
Initially influenced by Chinese communism, later by American capitalism.
Supported by China, the USA, Egypt, and South Africa.

Angolan War of Independence

A liberation war against Portuguese colonizers that broke out in January 1961.
The three liberation movements grew in size and strength during this war.
The Cold War led to the USSR supporting the MPLA (due to its communist leanings) and the USA supporting the FNLA and UNITA (as they appeared anti-communist).
Angola's mineral wealth made it a target for influence by both the USA and the USSR.
After the Sino-Soviet split, China denounced ‘Soviet imperialism’ and supported the FNLA and, to a lesser extent, UNITA.
The war continued through the 1960s and early 1970s. Many Portuguese were against being conscripted, causing tension in Portugal.
The Carnation Revolution in 1974 overthrew Portugal’s fascist regime, after which Portugal agreed to grant independence to its colonies.
In January 1975, Roberto, Neto, and Savimbi signed the Alvor Agreement with Portugal, agreeing to end the war, hold elections in October 1975, and grant independence in November 1975.
This led to an exodus of almost 300,000 Portuguese citizens from Angola.
The Alvor Agreement recognized the three liberation movements as the sole representatives of the Angolan people and formalized a ceasefire. It stressed Angola's indivisibility within its existing boundaries.
A transitional government was established, with power shared among the three movements.

The Angolan Civil War

Conflict between the three movements arose by July 1975 as each claimed the right to rule.
After Angola's independence on November 11, 1975, the conflict became known as the Angolan Civil War.
Influenced by ethnic and ideological differences, and foreign support.
The first battle was for control of Luanda.
The FNLA initially had the strongest military force and allied with UNITA.
This alliance received military support from South Africa and financial support from the USA. Zaire and China also supported the FNLA.
Cuban forces and Soviet equipment aided the MPLA, allowing it to control Luanda and much of the coast.
UNITA retreated south, and the FNLA retreated north.
International support during the Civil War was similar to that during the War of Independence, but with changes. China withdrew support from UNITA when it accepted support from South Africa's apartheid government.
Cabinda, a separate territory, was considered part of Angola, and the MPLA took control of it.
Resistance arose in Cabinda among those seeking independence, but the MPLA wanted to retain control of this oil-rich region for revenue.
The MPLA attempted to run a socialist regime in Luanda, but the civil service struggled due to the departure of Portuguese staff.
Work in agriculture, industry, trade, and transport stalled, bringing the country close to bankruptcy.
The MPLA adopted a flag based on its party flag, with a half cog (representing industrial workers) and a machete (representing agricultural workers and the struggle for independence), reminiscent of the Soviet flag.

Angola as Part of the Cold War

The MPLA was supported by the USSR and its satellite states, as well as Cuba, who aimed to spread communism.
The USA supported UNITA and the FNLA.
UNITA received support from South Africa, and the FNLA from Zaire and China.
International involvement prolonged the civil war and increased loss of life.
The USA aimed to limit the spread of communism and prevent the MPLA from controlling Angola.
South Africa's anti-communist government did not want the MPLA in power, as it could support the ANC.
South Africa also controlled South-West Africa (Namibia) and did not want SWAPO to establish bases in Angola.
Zaire supported the FNLA due to ethnic and family ties between Roberto and Mobutu.
China briefly supported the FNLA to compete with the USSR for influence.
In late 1975, UNITA and the FNLA formed a coalition government in Huambo.
In 1976, MPLA attacks weakened the FNLA, and the MPLA fought UNITA. UNITA became a guerrilla force.
The MPLA attacked Huambo in 1976, forcing UNITA to retreat to Jamba.
Later in 1976, the OAU recognized the MPLA as Angola’s government and Neto as its president.
In 1977, the MPLA killed thousands in a political purge and declared itself a Marxist-Leninist Party.
In 1979, Neto died, and Jose Eduardo dos Santos became the leader of the MPLA and President of Angola.
In the early 1980s, the South Africa Defence Force (SADF) re-entered Angola to attack SWAPO bases and support UNITA.
The UN condemned South Africa’s presence.
Cuba increased its troops, and the USSR increased financial aid to the MPLA.
The USA decreased involvement under Ford and Carter but resumed support for UNITA under Reagan.
In the mid-1980s, the CIA helped develop UNITA’s base at Jamba, providing radar, anti-aircraft weapons, and a runway.
The USA’s involvement strengthened UNITA, leading the MPLA to start peace negotiations in 1987.

Impact on Regional Stability

After Angola's independence in 1975, Southern Africa became less stable.
Refugees from the Civil War entered Zaire and Zambia, causing instability.
Angola’s independence encouraged Black Liberation Movements against white domination in South Africa, South-West Africa (Namibia), and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe).

The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale

The MPLA’s armed wing was called Forças Armadas Populares de Libertação de Angola (FAPLA).
FAPLA was seen as Angola’s national army after independence.
UNITA controlled south-eastern Angola and could call on the SADF for assistance from the Caprivi Strip.
In September 1987, FAPLA entered south-eastern Angola to oust UNITA.
The SADF aided UNITA to maintain control of southern Angola.
The SADF pushed FAPLA forces back to Cuito Cuanavale in October 1987 and laid siege to the town.
FAPLA requested assistance from the Cuban army.
The Cubans attacked the SADF forces from the air with MiG fighter jets.
The SADF attacked the town six times between January and March 1988, using heavy artillery.
One-third of the town’s inhabitants died from bombardments or starvation.
In March 1988, the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale ended, but conflict continued around Calueque Dam.
Peace negotiations included Cuba and, later, South Africa.
A ceasefire was declared in August.
In December 1988, the New York Accords ended foreign involvement and granted independence to Namibia.
Both sides claimed victory in the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale.
In June 1989, the MPLA and UNITA agreed to a ceasefire, but conflict resumed because Dos Santos wanted Savimbi to leave Angola, which Savimbi refused.

Later Conflict

The Cold War ended in 1989, and the USSR turned its attention inwards, ceasing to support the MPLA.
The USA stopped supporting UNITA.
The MPLA ceased being a Marxist-Leninist organization but remained left-wing.
It committed to restructuring its economy to receive economic assistance.
The MPLA and UNITA signed the Bicesse Accords in May 1991, agreeing to multi-party elections and unification of armed forces.
General elections were held in September 1992 with 400 UN observers.
The UN declared the elections “generally free and fair”.
Savimbi claimed the elections were rigged.
MPLA members killed UNITA supporters in the Halloween Massacre.
The civil war resumed.
In 1993, the USA acknowledged the MPLA government and stopped supporting UNITA.
The war continued, with an estimated 1,000 deaths per day in late 1993.
In 1994, the MPLA and UNITA signed the Lusaka Protocol, where UNITA would disarm and integrate into the army and police force.
In 1996, MPLA and UNITA agreed to form a unity government.
In 1997, the arrangement broke down as Savimbi refused a post, and few UNITA troops joined the national army.
In 1998, the war resumed, and in 1999, the MPLA took control of Jamba.
In 2002, Savimbi was killed, and UNITA agreed to a ceasefire.
The MPLA and UNITA signed the Luena Memorandum and the Lusaka Protocol, ending the Angolan Civil War.
UNITA disarmed and became an opposition political party (like the FNLA).
The Angolan Civil War ended.
Many people have died or been injured by landmines scattered during the war.
International organizations are clearing minefields.
Luanda has many destitute people who fled rural areas.
Angola benefits from the Cabinda oilfields and other oilfields.