hug industry
🌍 AP HUG Unit 7 Flashcards (100+ Terms)
Industrial Revolution + Early Industry
Industrial Revolution — Shift beginning in the mid-1700s where economies moved from farming/hand production to factory machine production.
Agrarian Economy — Economy based mainly on farming and agriculture.
Industrial Economy — Economy based on manufacturing and factory production.
Mechanization — Replacing human labor with machines to increase production.
Mass Production — Producing large quantities of goods quickly and cheaply using machines.
Factory System — Centralized production system where goods are made in factories with machines and wage labor.
Steam Engine — Invention that allowed factories to operate without water power, accelerating industrial growth.
Spinning Jenny — Machine that increased textile production by spinning thread faster.
Water Frame — Textile machine powered by water, used in early industrial factories.
Agricultural Revolution — Period of improved farming technology that increased food supply and freed workers for industry.
Seed Drill — Farming tool that planted seeds more efficiently.
Mechanical Reaper — Machine that increased harvesting speed.
Steel Plow — Tool that made soil cultivation easier and more efficient.
Enclosure Movement — Privatization of farmland in England that pushed rural workers into cities.
Coal — Key industrial fuel source that powered steam engines and factories.
Raw Materials — Natural resources used to make products (cotton, iron, rubber).
Colonialism — Political and economic control of a territory by a foreign power.
Imperialism — Policy of extending power through colonization or economic domination.
Berlin Conference — 1884–1885 meeting where European powers divided Africa into colonies.
Colonial Extraction Economy — System where colonies supply raw materials to colonizers and buy finished goods.
Urbanization + Social Change
Urbanization — Movement of people from rural areas into cities.
Rural-to-Urban Migration — Migration from countryside to cities, often caused by industrial job growth.
Wage Labor — Work where people earn money instead of producing their own goods.
Working Class — Industrial laborers who earn wages and work in factories.
Capitalist Class (Bourgeoisie) — Wealthy factory owners and business investors.
Middle Class — Group between working and wealthy classes, often professionals and managers.
Standard of Living — Overall quality of life based on income, healthcare, and access to goods.
Population Explosion — Rapid population growth caused by improved food supply and health.
Demographic Transition Model (DTM) — Model showing how population changes as a country develops economically.
Stage 2 DTM — High birth rate and falling death rate, rapid growth (early industrialization).
Economic Sectors (Primary–Quinary)
Economic Sector — Category of economic activity based on type of work and production.
Primary Sector — Extraction of raw materials (farming, fishing, mining).
Secondary Sector — Manufacturing and processing of raw materials into goods.
Tertiary Sector — Service jobs providing intangible products (education, retail, healthcare).
Quaternary Sector — Knowledge-based jobs requiring high education (research, tech, finance).
Quinary Sector — Top-level decision-making jobs (CEOs, high government officials).
Industrialization — Growth of secondary sector jobs and factory production.
Postindustrial Economy — Economy dominated by services and knowledge sectors.
Service Economy — Economy dominated by tertiary and quaternary jobs.
Deindustrialization — Decline of manufacturing jobs and factories in a region.
Core-Periphery Development Patterns
Core — Highly developed, wealthy countries with strong services and political power.
Periphery — Less developed countries dependent on raw materials and low-wage labor.
Semi-Periphery — Middle-development countries with growing industry and mixed economic sectors.
Global North — Wealthy, developed, politically powerful countries.
Global South — Less developed countries with lower income and more dependency.
Uneven Development — Global pattern where some regions develop faster than others.
Spatial Inequality — Unequal distribution of wealth and resources across space.
Development Gap — Difference in wealth and quality of life between rich and poor countries.
Global Division of Labor — Pattern where core controls management/tech while periphery does labor/resource extraction.
International Division of Labor — Similar concept: work is divided globally based on development levels.
Measuring Development (GDP, HDI, etc.)
Development — A country’s level of economic and social well-being.
Economic Development — Increase in wealth, production, and economic power.
Social Development — Improvement in education, healthcare, and quality of life.
GDP (Gross Domestic Product) — Total value of goods/services produced within a country’s borders.
GNP (Gross National Product) — Total value produced by a country’s citizens/companies anywhere in the world.
GNI (Gross National Income) — Total income earned by a country’s citizens, including foreign investments.
Per Capita — Average per person (GDP divided by population).
GDP per Capita — Average output per person; common development indicator.
GNI per Capita — Average income per person; useful for comparing development.
Income Distribution — How evenly wealth is spread in a population.
Wealth Gap — Difference between richest and poorest in a country.
Gender Inequality Index (GII) — Measure of inequality between men and women in health, empowerment, and labor.
Human Development Index (HDI) — UN measure combining income, education, and life expectancy.
Life Expectancy — Average number of years a person is expected to live.
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) — Number of infant deaths per 1,000 live births.
Maternal Mortality Rate — Number of women who die from pregnancy-related causes.
Fertility Rate — Average number of children a woman will have.
Literacy Rate — Percent of people who can read and write.
Access to Healthcare — Availability of medical services; increases development and life expectancy.
Dependency Ratio — Ratio of dependents (young/old) to working-age population.
Formal vs Informal Economy
Formal Economy — Legal, regulated, taxed economic activity.
Informal Economy — Unregulated economic activity not recorded by government.
Street Vendor Economy — Common informal economy example in developing countries.
Cash Economy — Economy where transactions occur in cash without official records.
Underground Economy — Economic activity hidden from government, often informal or illegal.
Subsistence Agriculture — Farming where crops are grown mainly to feed the farmer’s family.
Commercial Agriculture — Farming focused on selling crops for profit.
Self-Employment — Work where individuals run their own small business.
Microenterprise — Small business, often supported by microloans.
Economic Vulnerability — High risk of collapse due to unstable income or reliance on one sector.
Women and Development
Gender Parity — Equal access to education, jobs, and rights between genders.
Wage Gap — Difference in pay between men and women for similar work.
Patriarchy — Social system where men hold most power and women have fewer rights.
Empowerment — Increased social, political, and economic power of marginalized groups.
Microloan (Microlending) — Small loan given to poor individuals (often women) to start a business.
Female Labor Force Participation — Percentage of women working or seeking work.
Reproductive Health — Healthcare related to pregnancy, childbirth, and women’s health.
Adolescent Birth Rate — Number of births per 1,000 teenage girls; high rates indicate low development.
Education Access — Availability of schooling, especially important for development outcomes.
Demographic Impact of Women’s Education — Educated women marry later and have fewer children.
Theories of Development (FRQ GOLD)
Rostow’s Stages of Growth — Model arguing all countries develop through five stages of industrialization and modernization.
Traditional Society (Rostow) — Subsistence farming, low technology, low productivity.
Preconditions for Takeoff (Rostow) — Infrastructure begins, investment rises.
Takeoff (Rostow) — Rapid industrial growth and economic expansion.
Drive to Maturity (Rostow) — Economy diversifies and becomes more stable.
Age of Mass Consumption (Rostow) — High consumerism and service economy dominance.
Modernization Theory — Idea that development happens when countries adopt Western technology and industry.
Dependency Theory — Theory that periphery remains poor because core exploits it economically.
Neocolonialism — Indirect economic control of poorer countries by richer ones.
World-Systems Theory — Wallerstein’s theory that capitalism creates a global system of core, semi-periphery, and periphery.
Global Capitalism — Economic system where production and trade are organized globally for profit.
Commodity Dependence Theory — Countries relying heavily on exporting raw commodities stay underdeveloped.
Commodity — Raw material or agricultural product sold on global markets (oil, coffee, minerals).
Price Volatility — Unstable pricing that fluctuates frequently, common in commodities.
Microeconomy — Economy dependent on one or few exports, making it vulnerable.
Industry Location + Transportation
Least Cost Theory (Weber) — Factories locate where transportation and production costs are minimized.
Weber Triangle — Model showing factory location based on raw materials and market location.
Bulk-Reducing Industry — Industry where raw materials weigh more than final product; locates near resources.
Bulk-Gaining Industry — Industry where finished product weighs more; locates near market.
Fragility Factor — Idea that fragile goods are produced near markets to prevent damage.
Break-of-Bulk Point — Location where goods transfer between transportation methods (port, rail hub).
Transportation Costs — Costs that shape where factories locate and where goods are produced.
Intermodal Transportation — Shipping using multiple transport methods (ship + rail + truck).
Containerization — Use of standardized shipping containers that lowered shipping costs and boosted globalization.
Shipping Network — Global routes and infrastructure that connect trade through oceans and ports.
Globalization + Trade + Industry Shifts
Globalization — Increasing economic and cultural connections between places worldwide.
Outsourcing — Moving production to another country to reduce labor and production costs.
Offshoring — Relocating business processes to another country (similar to outsourcing).
Global Restructuring — Shifting of industrial production from core to periphery/semi-periphery.
Rust Belt — U.S. region where manufacturing declined due to deindustrialization.
Fordism — System of mass production of standardized goods (assembly line production).
Post-Fordism — Flexible production spread across multiple countries.
Just-in-Time Delivery — Producing goods only when needed to reduce storage costs.
Multiplier Effect — One job creates additional jobs indirectly through local economic growth.
Agglomeration Economies — Benefits industries gain by clustering together in one region.
Industrial Cluster — Group of related businesses located close together.
Growth Pole — Region of rapid economic growth that spreads development outward.
Technopole — High-tech growth pole, often tied to research and innovation.
Trade Policies + Global Organizations
Complementarity — Trade occurs because countries have goods/resources the other lacks.
Comparative Advantage — Countries specialize in goods they produce most efficiently.
Economies of Scale — Cost advantages gained by producing goods in large quantities.
Neoliberalism — Economic approach promoting free markets, reduced regulation, and free trade.
Tariff — Tax on imported goods to protect domestic industries.
Trade Barrier — Any restriction on trade (tariffs, quotas, regulations).
Trade War — Cycle of retaliatory tariffs between countries.
European Union (EU) — Major political and economic union promoting free trade in Europe.
MERCOSUR — South American trade bloc designed to reduce tariffs between member states.
OPEC — Organization of major oil-exporting countries that influences global oil prices.
WTO (World Trade Organization) — Global organization that regulates and promotes international trade.
IMF (International Monetary Fund) — Global financial institution that stabilizes economies through loans and restructuring.
Financial Crises + Interdependence
Economic Interdependence — When economies rely on each other through trade and investment.
Great Depression — 1930s global economic collapse starting in the U.S.
Global Financial Crisis (2007–2008) — Worldwide recession caused by risky U.S. housing loans and bank collapse.
Subprime Mortgage — High-risk loan given to borrowers likely to default.
Recession — Significant economic decline lasting months or longer.
Debt Crisis — When a country cannot repay loans, causing economic instability.
Trade Zones + Development Strategies
SEZ (Special Economic Zone) — Area with special economic rules to attract foreign investment.
EPZ (Export Processing Zone) — SEZ focused on producing goods for export.
FTZ (Free Trade Zone) — Tax-free area for storing/assembling goods for export.
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) — Investment by a company in another country’s business/factories.
Sustainability + Development
Sustainability — Meeting current needs without harming future generations’ ability to meet theirs.
Resource Depletion — Using natural resources faster than they can be replaced.
Nonrenewable Resource — Resource that cannot be replenished quickly (oil, coal, minerals).
Renewable Resource — Resource that can replenish naturally (solar, wind, forests if managed).
Industrial Agriculture — Large-scale farming using machinery and heavy resource inputs.
Aquifer Depletion — Draining underground freshwater faster than it refills.
Pollution — Contamination of air, water, or land due to industrial production.
Carbon Emissions — Release of CO₂ from fossil fuels, driving climate change.
Climate Change — Long-term shifts in temperature and weather patterns due to greenhouse gases.
Ecotourism — Tourism designed to protect environments while supporting local economies.
Greenhouse Effect — Trapping of heat in Earth’s atmosphere by gases like CO₂.
UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) — Global goals aimed at reducing poverty and increasing sustainability and equality.
⭐ BONUS “PROCESS” FLASHCARDS (AP LOVES THESE)
Industrialization Process — shift from primary work to factory manufacturing and urban growth.
Urban Growth Process — migration into cities due to industrial job concentration.
Globalization Process — increasing global connections through trade, transportation, and communication.
Development Process — improvement in economic output, quality of life, and infrastructure.
Core Expansion Process — core nations increase influence through trade, finance, and global institutions.
Periphery Dependency Process — periphery exports raw materials and relies on core investment and markets.
Outsourcing Cycle — corporations move production to low-wage regions, strengthening semi-periphery growth.
Deindustrialization Cycle — manufacturing leaves core regions, creating job loss and regional decline.