USH Semester 2 Final Exam Study Guide

Unit 4: Postwar America

Essential Study Questions

Ideological Differences: Discuss the core ideological differences between the U.S. and the Soviet Union (USSR) that shaped the emergence of the Cold War. Focus on themes of Capitalism vs. Communism, individual liberties vs. totalitarian control, and market economies vs. command economies.
Early Cold War Foreign Policy: Describe the American foreign policy in the early years of the Cold War and the reasoning behind it. This includes the development of the policy of containment as a response to perceived Soviet expansionism.
The Korean War and Containment: Evaluate to what extent the Korean War represented a success for the U.S. containment policy. Analyze the preservation of South Korea's independence and the establishment of the Demilitarized Zone ( $DMZ$ ).
Nuclear Arms Proliferation: Analyze the ways in which the nuclear arms build-up was dangerous for global stability, contrasted with how the concept of Mutually Assured Destruction ( $MAD$ ) guaranteed a level of security by preventing direct conflict between superpowers.
Missile Gap Perception: Explain the causes for the "Missile Gap" perception (the belief that the USSR had surpassed the U.S. in nuclear capabilities) and the governmental and public responses to this fear.
Domestic Response to Communism: Determine how the American government responded to domestic fears of communism, including legislative actions and loyalty programs.
Consequences of the Red Scare: Identify the consequences of the Red Scare on American society, politics, and individual lives, including the impact of the Lavender Scare and professional blacklisting.
Post-War Life and Culture: List and analyze the factors that shaped American life and culture in the post- $1945$ period, such as the rise of the Sunbelt and the dominance of the nuclear family model.
Conformity and Resistance: Explain how and why some Americans conformed to new societal norms (e.g., suburban living, consumerism) and how/why groups like the Beatniks resisted these norms.

Key Terminology and Concepts

Cold War: The period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies between $1947$ and $1991$ .
USSR/Soviet Union: The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, a federal socialist state that existed from $1922$ to $1991$ .
Communism: A political theory derived from Karl Marx, advocating class war and leading to a society in which all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs.
United Nations: An intergovernmental organization established on October $24$ , $1945$ , to promote international co-operation and maintain international order.
Eastern Bloc vs. Western Bloc: The Eastern Bloc consisted of the Soviet Union and its satellite states in Central and Eastern Europe; the Western Bloc refers to the U.S. and its NATO allies.
Iron Curtain: A term popularized by Winston Churchill describing the political, military, and ideological barrier erected by the Soviet Union after World War II to seal off itself and its dependent central and eastern European allies from open contact with the West.
Long Telegram: A $8,000$ -word telegram sent by George Kennan in $1946$ outlining the nature of Soviet behavior and advising the policy of containment.
Containment Policy: A U.S. foreign policy doctrine adopted by the Harry S. Truman administration in $1947$ , operating on the principle that communist governments would eventually fall apart as long as they are prevented from expanding their influence.
Truman Doctrine: Established that the United States would provide political, military, and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces.
Marshall Plan: Also known as the European Recovery Program, this was a U.S. program providing aid to Western Europe following the devastation of World War II, enacted in $1948$ .
Berlin Blockade and Airlift: One of the first major international crises of the Cold War ( $1948$ - $1949$ ); Soviet forces blockaded rail, road, and water access to Allied-controlled areas of Berlin. The U.S. and UK responded by airlifting food and fuel.
NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, an intergovernmental military alliance between $32$ North American and European countries, established in $1949$ .
People’s Republic of China (PRC) vs. Republic of China (ROC): The mainland communist government (PRC) established in $1949$ versus the nationalist government (ROC) that retreated to Taiwan.
One-China Policy: The diplomatic acknowledgement of China's position that there is only one Chinese government.
Korean War: A war between North Korea (supported by China and the USSR) and South Korea (supported by the UN/U.S.) from $1950$ to $1953$ .
DMZ: The Demilitarized Zone, a strip of land running across the Korean Peninsula that serves as a buffer zone between North and South Korea.
Nuclear Arms Race: A competition for supremacy in nuclear warfare between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies during the Cold War.
Massive Retaliation: A military doctrine and nuclear strategy in which a state commits itself to retaliate in much greater force in the event of an attack.
Brinkmanship: The practice of trying to achieve an advantageous outcome by pushing dangerous events to the brink of active conflict.
Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD): A doctrine of military strategy and national security policy in which a full-scale use of nuclear weapons by two or more opposing sides would cause the complete annihilation of both the attacker and the defender.
Space Race and Sputnik: The competition between the USSR and the U.S. to achieve superior spaceflight capability; Sputnik was the first artificial Earth satellite, launched by the USSR on October $4$ , $1957$ .
Red Scare: A period of intense fear of communism in the U.S., specifically the Second Red Scare following WWII.
Executive Order 9835: Signed by President Truman in $1947$ , establishing the first general loyalty program in the United States, designed to root out communist influence in the U.S. federal government.
House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC): An investigative committee of the United States House of Representatives created in $1938$ to investigate alleged disloyalty and rebel activities on the part of private citizens, public employees, and those organizations suspected of having communist ties.
Joseph McCarthy: A U.S. Senator who became the most visible public face of a period in which Cold War tensions fueled fears of widespread communist subversion.
McCarran Act: The Internal Security Act of $1950$ , which required Communist organizations to register with the United States Attorney General.
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg: American citizens who were convicted of spying on behalf of the Soviet Union and executed in $1953$ .
G.I. Bill: Formally the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of $1944$ , it provided benefits to World War II veterans including low-cost mortgages and payments of tuition.
Baby Boom: A significant increase in the birth rate between $1946$ and $1964$ .
Levittown and Suburbs: Planned communities representing the post-war suburbanization of America.
Sunbelt: A region of the United States generally considered to stretch across the Southeast and Southwest that saw massive population growth after WWII.
STEM: An acronym for the fields of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics, which received increased funding during the Cold War.
Consumerism and the Culture of Conformity: The post-war trend of high levels of consumption and a societal expectation for individuals to adhere to traditional social roles and behaviors.

Unit 5: The Vietnam War

Essential Study Questions

First Indochina War: Identify who the U.S. supported in the First Indochina War, the methods of support (financial/military aid), and the underlying reasons (containment of communism and support of French colonial interests) for that support.
Increasing Involvement in 1968: Analyze how and why U.S. involvement in Vietnam escalated specifically around $1968$ , considering the impact of the Tet Offensive.
Military Challenges: Detail the challenges faced by the U.S. military in Vietnam, including guerrilla warfare, the climate/terrain, and the difficulty in identifying the enemy (Vietcong).
Effectiveness of Military Operations: Evaluate the success of U.S. military operations and the factors contributing to the outcomes, such as the focus on the "Body Count" system rather than territorial gains.
The Draft and Perception: Assess the impact of the military draft on the war's conduct and how the public perceived the fairness and necessity of the conflict.
Anti-War Protests and the Democratic Party: Describe the influence of anti-war protests on the platform and internal stability of the Democratic Party, particularly surrounding the $1968$ convention.
The Credibility Gap: Define the "credibility gap" and explain how the disparity between government reports and reality impacted public support for the war.
Nixon’s Exit Strategy: Evaluate the effectiveness of "Vietnamization" as an exit strategy for the United States.
Pentagon Papers: Discuss the impact of the leaked Pentagon Papers on public trust in government and the continuation of the war.
War Powers Act: Explain the legislative intent behind the War Powers Act and why it was passed as a check on executive power.

Key Terminology and Concepts

French Indochina: The collective name for the French colonial territories in Southeast Asia (Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos).
Ho Chi Minh: The communist revolutionary leader who was Chairman and First Secretary of the Workers' Party of Vietnam.
Geneva Accords: The $1954$ agreement that temporarily divided Vietnam into North and South at the $17^{th}$ Parallel.
Ngo Dinh Diem: The leader of South Vietnam who was supported by the U.S. until his assassination in $1963$ .
Vietcong: The communist guerrilla force in South Vietnam that fought against the South Vietnamese government and the U.S.
Ho Chi Minh Trail: A logistical system that ran from North Vietnam to South Vietnam through the neighboring kingdoms of Laos and Cambodia to provide support to the Vietcong.
MAAGS: Military Advisory Assistance Groups, which the U.S. used to send military advisors to Vietnam.
Domino Theory: The theory that a political event in one country will cause similar events in neighboring countries, specifically the fear that if Vietnam fell to communism, other SE Asian nations would follow.
SEATO: Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, an international organization for collective defense in Southeast Asia.
Gulf of Tonkin Incident and Resolution: A purported confrontation in $1964$ between North Vietnamese and U.S. ships that led to Congress granting President Johnson broad military powers through the Tonkin Resolution.
Search and Destroy: A military strategy that became a large component of the Vietnam War, involving inserting ground forces into hostile territory, searching out the enemy, destroying them, and withdrawing immediately.
Napalm and Agent Orange: Incendiary and herbicidal chemicals used by the U.S. military for clearing jungle foliage and destroying enemy cover.
Operation Rolling Thunder: The title of a gradual and sustained aerial bombardment campaign conducted by the U.S. $2^{nd}$ Air Division against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam from $1965$ to $1968$ .
Policy of ‘minimum candor’: A government approach of providing limited information to the public to prevent opposition to the war.
Tet Offensive: A major coordinated series of North Vietnamese attacks on more than $100$ cities and outposts in South Vietnam in $1968$ , turning point in public opinion.
Draft Deferments, Dodgers, and Conscientious Objectors: Terms related to the resistance to the mandatory military draft.
New Left and SDS: Students for a Democratic Society, a student activist movement in the U.S. that was one of the main representations of the New Left.
Hawks vs. Doves: Terms used to describe those who supported the war effort (Hawks) and those who opposed it (Doves).
Kent State Protests: An incident in $1970$ where members of the Ohio National Guard fired into a crowd of demonstrators, killing four students.
Vietnamization: A policy of the Richard Nixon administration to end U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War through a program to expand, equip, and train South Vietnamese forces.

Unit 6: The End of the 20th Century and the Modern Middle East

Essential Study Questions

Carter’s Foreign Policy: Describe President Jimmy Carter's foreign policy goals toward human rights and analyze the success of the Camp David Accords.
1970s Economy: Analyze the factors impacting the American economy in the $1970$ s, specifically the causes of stagflation and the energy crisis.
Iran Hostage Crisis: Identify the major causes of the hostage crisis (including the U.S. support for the Shah) and how the crisis concluded under the Algiers Accords.
Reagan’s Foreign Policy: Describe Ronald Reagan’s foreign policy goals, specifically his pursuit of a massive military build-up and his stance against the "Evil Empire."
Soviet-Afghan War: Evaluate the U.S. role in supporting the Mujahideen and the long-term effects of this involvement on regional stability.
Reaganomics: Evaluate the effectiveness of supply-side economics (Reaganomics) in addressing the economic issues of the $1980$ s.
Iran-Contra Affair: Describe the illegal sale of arms to Iran to fund the Contras in Nicaragua and the subsequent political fallout.
Gulf War (1990-1991): Explain why the war began (Saddam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait), the U.S. role in Operation Desert Storm, and the war's geopolitical effects.
9/11 and Response: Discuss the causes of the September $11$ , $2001$ attacks, the rise of Al Qaeda, and the subsequent Bush Doctrine/War on Terror.
Conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq: Analyze the reasons for U.S. entry into Afghanistan ( $2001$ ) and Iraq ( $2003$ ) and the long-term effects of these conflicts.

Key Terminology and Concepts

Stagflation: A period of slow economic growth and relatively high unemployment while prices (inflation) rise.
OPEC: Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, which implemented oil embargos in the $1970$ s.
Mohammed Mossadegh: The democratically elected Prime Minister of Iran overthrown in a $1953$ coup (Operation AJAX).
Ayatollah Khomeini: The religious leader who became the supreme leader of Iran following the $1979$ Islamic Revolution.
Operation Eagle Claw: A failed U.S. military operation to rescue the hostages in Tehran in April $1980$ .
Reagan Doctrine: The strategy to overwhelm the global influence of the Soviet Union by supporting anti-communist resistance movements (e.g., Contras and Mujahideen).
Iran-Contra Affair: A political scandal where senior administration officials secretly facilitated the sale of arms to Iran, which was the subject of an arms embargo.
Boland Amendments: A series of three legislative amendments between $1982$ and $1984$ , all aimed at limiting U.S. government assistance to the Contras in Nicaragua.
Saddam Hussein: The President of Iraq from $1979$ to $2003$ .
Operation Desert Storm: The combat phase of the Gulf War, occurring in early $1991$ .
Bush Doctrine: A policy defined by the idea that the U.S. should take preemptive action against threats to national security.
Abu Ghraib: A prison in Iraq where U.S. military personnel committed human rights violations against detainees.

Unit 7: The Civil Rights Movements

Essential Study Questions

African American Challenges: Identify the systematic issues of Jim Crow, de jure vs. de facto segregation, and disenfranchisement faced by African Americans in the $1950$ s and $60$ s.
Rise of the Movement: Explain why the Civil Rights movement gained significant momentum during this era, noting the roles of leaders like MLK and Malcolm X.
Legal Changes: Identify the major legal transformations, including Brown v. Board of Education, the Civil Rights Act ( $1964$ ), and the Voting Rights Act.
Latino Challenges and Activism: Describe the specific challenges faced by Latinos regarding labor rights and education, and the response led by Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta.
Asian American Challenges: Detail the history of the "Yellow Peril," the Chinese Exclusion Act, and the response through the "Yellow Power" movement.
Women’s Rights: Analyze the challenges of the second wave of feminism and the legislative impacts of Title IX and Roe v. Wade.
LGBTQIA+ Community: Describe the Lavender Scare, the Stonewall Uprising, and the emergence of political figures like Harvey Milk.

Key Terminology and Concepts

Plessy v. Ferguson: The $1896$ Supreme Court case that upheld the "separate but equal" doctrine.
Brown v. Board of Education: The $1954$ case that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional.
Little Rock Nine: A group of nine African American students enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in $1957$ .
Freedom Summer: A volunteer campaign in the U.S. launched in June $1964$ to attempt to register as many African-American voters as possible in Mississippi.
Black Power: A political slogan and a name for various associated ideologies aimed at achieving self-determination for people of African descent.
United Farm Workers (UFW): A labor union for farmworkers in the United States, founded by Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta.
Lavender Scare: A witch hunt and the mass firing of homosexual people from the United States government in the $1950$ s.
Stonewall Uprising: A series of spontaneous demonstrations by members of the gay community in response to a police raid that began in the early morning hours of June $28$ , $1969$ , at the Stonewall Inn.
Briggs Initiative: A failed $1978$ California ballot initiative that sought to ban gays and lesbians from working in public schools.