Aquinas

Chapter XXXI St. Thomas Aquinas-I

Background of St. Thomas Aquinas

• Born: Castle of Roccasecca, near Naples, end of 1224 or beginning of 1225

• Family: Son of Count of Aquino

• Early Education:

  • Age 5: Placed in Monte Cassino Abbey as an oblate

  • Studies there from 1230 to 1239 (monastery expelled by Emperor Frederick II)

• University Life:

  • Age 14: Moved to University of Naples

  • Inspired by Dominican friars, joined Order in 1244 (against family's wishes)

• Kidnapping Incident:

  • Brothers kidnapped him due to his Dominican commitment, imprisoned for a year in Aquino

  • Escaped to Paris in 1245.

Academic Journey

• Paris and Cologne:

  • Studied under St. Albert the Great (1245-1252)

  • Influenced by Albert’s approach to Aristotelian philosophy

• Roles at University:

  • Returned to Paris in 1252, became Baccalaureus Biblicus

  • Lectured on Scriptures and Peter Lombard’s Sentences

  • Received Licentiate in theology (1256), pursued teaching until 1259.

• Travel in Italy:

  • Taught attached to Papal court (1259-1268)

  • Involved in academic and theological controversies.

• Later Career:

  • Returned to Paris to teach (1268-1272)

  • Engaged in debates with Averroists

  • Moved to Naples for Dominican studium generale,

  • Died en route to Lyon council, March 7, 1274.

Legacy and Works

• Contribution:

  • Emphasized synthesis of Christian doctrine with Aristotelian philosophy

• Key Works:

  • Summa Theologica (1265-1273)

  • Summa contra Gentiles, De Veritate, Commentaries on Aristotle

  • Work chronology includes debates on being, existence, and essence.

Philosophical System

• Nature of Philosophy:

  • Philosopher-theologian relationship: St. Thomas's works integrate philosophical ideas and theology.

  • Emphasizes that truths ascertainable by human reason, like God's existence, are critical.

• Existence vs. Essence:

  • Focuses on existing being (ipsum esse subsistens) rather than just essence

  • Contrasts with philosophical traditions emphasizing essence (like Plato).

  • St. Thomas argues for God's essence as existence itself, linked closely with the concept of creation ex nihilo.

Methodology

• Realism and Objectivity:

  • St. Thomas’ philosophy is concrete and realist, focusing on existent beings

  • Strives for objective knowledge, recognizing the importance of empirical observation.

  • His arguments are based on sensible experiences leading to spiritual insights about God.

Distinction from Other Philosophers

• Relation to Aristotle:

  • Shared Aristotelian methodology while emphasizing theology's primacy.

  • Critiques modern interpretations separating St. Thomas’s philosophy from his theological purposes.

• Philosophical Approach:

  • Unlike subjective philosophies (e.g., St. Bonaventure), St. Thomas starts from the objective world, seeking understanding from observable reality

  • Acknowledges metaphysical autonomy while asserting its connection to a higher knowledge of God.

• Mysticism:

  • Recognizes limitations of human cognition in understanding God, advocating for a mystical union which surpasses mere philosophical inquiry.

Chapter XXXII St. Thomas Aquinas-II: Philosophy and Theology

Distinction between Philosophy and Theology

• St. Thomas's Distinction: St. Thomas Aquinas established a formal and explicit distinction between dogmatic theology and philosophy.

• Sources of Knowledge:

  • Philosophy: Relies solely on the natural light of reason; conclusions are derived from human reasoning processes.

  • Theology: Accepts principles on faith and authority; there is an element of revelation involved.

• Nature of Arguments:

  • The theologian may use philosophical principles to understand theological mysteries (e.g., the Trinity), but does so starting from revealed premises rather than philosophical conclusions.

  • The philosopher begins with the observable world and uses reason to ascend to God.

Common Truths and Differences

• Common Truths: Both theology and philosophy may consider the same truths, but from different perspectives:

  • Example: God's existence

  • The philosopher concludes God's existence through reason.

  • The theologian accepts God's existence as a revealed truth.

• Material vs. Formal Difference:

  • Differences between theology and philosophy are not primarily about the content (material) of truths but the method of consideration (formal).

Philosophy's Relation to Theology

• Natural Theology: A significant part of philosophy aims at the knowledge of God, which is essential to natural theology.

  • Natural theology requires substantial philosophical reflection, which most people lack the capacity or time for. Therefore, revelation becomes morally necessary.

• Moral Necessity of Revelation:

  • Human beings need revelation because truth about God is essential for directing oneself towards the ultimate end, which is knowledge of God.

Faith and Knowledge

• Can Faith and Knowledge Coexist?

  • St. Thomas argues it is impossible for the same individual to both know (via rational demonstration) and believe (by faith) the same truth simultaneously.

  • True articles of faith (e.g., unity of God) are seen as derived from faith rather than rational proof.

• Praeambula ad Articulos: Some truths are not proper articles of faith but lead to articles of faith, making them objects of belief even for those who may not grasp their rational demonstration.

Ends of Humanity

• Two Ends: St. Thomas identifies a distinction between natural and supernatural ends of human beings:

  • Natural End: Attainable through human reason and natural powers; a philosopher studies this end.

  • Supernatural End: Requires revelation for understanding; this end transcends mere human abilities and pertains to theological study.

• Incompleteness of Natural Knowledge: Philosophers can only approach an incomplete understanding of man's purpose, whereas theology reveals the entirety of man's supernal end.

St. Thomas vs. St. Augustine

• Differentiation in Viewpoint: St. Thomas distinguishes two ends (natural and supernatural), while St. Augustine focuses on the human being's supernatural call.

• Philosophical Perspective: St. Augustine views man as naturally inclined towards a supernatural end; St. Thomas recognizes the interplay of both ends in human existence.

Philosophical Systems and the Role of Reason

• Metaphysical Systems: St. Thomas believed a philosopher could create a true metaphysical system without revelation, despite its inherent incompleteness.

• Utility of Philosophical Thought: St. Thomas acknowledges the potential for philosophical discourse but sees the necessity of revelation for completeness, especially concerning God's nature and the end of man.

St. Thomas: Innovator in Philosophy

• Adoption of Aristotelianism: St. Thomas adopts Aristotelian philosophy as a tool to express Christian truths. This was seen as bold and innovative in the context of his time.

• Scholasticism's Development: His approach laid the foundation for Scholasticism, emphasizing rational discourse in understanding faith.

• Aristotle and Revelation: St. Thomas interprets Aristotle's ideas within the framework of Christian doctrine, offering reconciliations where possible.

Conclusion

• St. Thomas is recognized not as a mere follower of Aristotle or Augustine, but as an innovator who combined elements of both to advance the understanding of philosophy and theology, leading to a richer and more comprehensive scholastic tradition.

Chapter XXXIII St. Thomas Aquinas-III: Principles of Created Being

Overview of St. Thomas Aquinas' Philosophy

• St. Thomas Aquinas is a prominent 13th-century philosopher and theologian known for his synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology.

Principles of Created Being

1. Starting Point for Thomistic Philosophy

• Existence of God: Aquinas begins his philosophical inquiries with the existence of God, followed by discussions on the nature of God and divine persons.

• Natural Theology: His proofs of God's existence are presupposed by a foundation of metaphysics that requires understanding basic concepts of created beings first.

• Hylomorphism: An essential doctrine where all material substances consist of matter and form.

• Material World Focus: Aquinas focuses on corporeal substances as the proper objects of human intellect, as they are derived from sensory experience.

2. Understanding Corporeal Substances

• Multiplicity of Substances: Recognizes many substances in the world, which can only be grasped through sense experience.

• Substance vs. Accidents: Reflection leads to distinguishing between substance (what a thing is) and accidents (properties or changes).

  • Example: A beech tree is the same substance through seasonal changes, while its leaves' colors change (accidents).

• Substantial Change: When a substance undergoes change, it retains its essence while its accidents can vary.

  • Example: Grass converting to cow flesh through assimilation.

3. Hylomorphic Composition

• Prime Matter and Substantial Form:

  • Prime Matter: The potentiality for all forms, which exists only in the context of actual forms; cannot exist by itself (pure potentiality).

  • Substantial Form: Actualizes prime matter, determining the essence of a substance (e.g., what it is to be a cow)

• Individuation Principle: The principle of individuation is matter, which, though pure potentiality, interacts with form to give rise to particular instances of species.

• Quantitative Determination: Matter receives quantifiable characteristics from its form, which determines its individuality and class.

4. Rejection of Other Theories

• Rejection of Ratio Seminales: St. Thomas dismisses this Augustinian theory, which posits that forms exist in potentiality within matter.

• Uniqueness of Substantial Forms: Aquinas denies the theory of multiple substantial forms within a single substance, asserting only a single substantial form characterizes each substance.

5. Angels and Hylomorphism

• Incorporeal Beings: Aquinas distinguishes between corporeal beings and angels, adhering to the concept that angels are immaterial and do not possess hylomorphic composition.

• Hierarchic Structure: Aquinas introduces a hierarchy of being that necessitates the existence of angels as separate intelligences that mediate between God and humanity.

6. Existence versus Essence

• Distinction: Aquinas emphasizes that existence (esse) is distinct from essence (what something is). This distinction is critical in understanding finite beings.

• Existence as Act: Existence is viewed as the act that actualizes essence; it is not an accident but fundamentally necessary for being.

• Objective Distinction: The distinction between essence and existence is real and objective but not separable; both principles are co-created.

7. The Role of Existence

• Contingency of Finite Beings: All finite beings are contingent, alive to potentiality but requiring existence to actualize their essence.

• Argument for God: Aquinas reasons that the existence of contingent beings calls for a necessary being (God), whose essence is existence itself.

8. Conclusion on Being

• Aquinas' Insight: The breakdown between essence and existence is crucial for understanding the nature of all created beings and forms a cornerstone of his metaphysical theology.

Summary

• St. Thomas Aquinas utilizes hylomorphism to explain the nature of created beings, insisting on the interplay of matter and form in corporeal substances, while uniquely categorizing angels and establishing a hierarchy of existence. The distinction between existence and essence serves as a pivotal concept in his philosophical and theological framework.

Chapter XXXIV St. Thomas Aquinas-IV: Proofs of God’s Existence

Need for Proof of God’s Existence

• St. Thomas Aquinas asserts that providing proofs for God's existence is essential due to atheistic philosophies prevailing in society.

• St. Anselm's argument posits that God's non-existence is inconceivable.

• Aquinas addresses objections regarding knowledge of God:

  • Claims of innate knowledge of God are unpersuasive, as humans often misidentify the nature of happiness, often equating it with material success rather than knowing God directly.

The Concept of Knowledge in God

• Natural Knowledge: St. Thomas distinguishes between vague innate knowledge and the distinct knowledge of God:

  • Natural desire for happiness reflects an innate idea about God but is often confused.

  • Claims that truth exists do not imply knowledge of the primal truth, which necessitates further reflection.

• Per Se Notum: Aquinas differentiates between two types:

  • Per Se Notum Secundum Se: Knowledge that requires no external proof (e.g., "Man is an animal").

  • Per Se Notum Quoad Nos: Knowledge we may not inherently possess (e.g., existence of God).

A Priori vs. A Posteriori Proofs

• A Priori (Ontological) Proof

  • Critique of St. Anselm's argument by Aquinas:

  • Not everyone understands "God" in the same way (as the greatest conceivable being).

  • Non-sequitur: Just because we conceive of God does not guarantee His existence outside our minds.

  • True knowledge of God, according to Aquinas, comes from a posteriori arguments (e.g., observations of the world).

A Posteriori Proofs of God’s Existence

1. Proof from Motion:

   • All motion is caused by something already in motion.

   • Infinite regress of movers is impossible; concludes with an Unmoved Mover (identified as God).

2. Proof from Efficient Causes:

   • Nothing can be its own cause; there cannot be an infinite sequence of causes.

   • There must be a First Efficient Cause (God).

3. Proof from Contingency:

   • Contingent beings imply a Necessary Being that explains why contingent beings exist at all.

4. Degrees of Perfection:

   • Recognizing varying degrees of qualities (goodness, truth) implies the existence of an ultimate standard or maximum being (God).

5. Teleological Proof:

   • Objects act toward ends; requires an intelligent director or designer (God).

Philosophical Considerations

• Aquinas's proofs are operational yet face modern skepticism:

  • Critics point to the disconnect between finite, observable phenomena and an infinite God, complicating the arguments.

  • The nature and character of the proofs require further expansive argumentation to address contemporary challenges, like those posed by Kant and logical positivism.

• Importance of establishing relevant metaphysical principles to validate the argument for God's existence, particularly in an era questioning the validity of metaphysics.

Conclusion of Aquinas’s Proofs

• Although Aquinas presents five distinct proofs, he suggests a preference for the proof from contingency as foundational.

• These proofs collectively aim to establish a sufficient reason for existence, arguing that every effect necessitates a prior cause, ultimately leading to the necessity of a divine creator.

Chapter XXXV St. Thomas Aquinas-V: God’s Nature

The Five Ways of St. Thomas Aquinas

• Five arguments for the existence of God:

  • Argument from Contingency: Everything that exists has a sufficient reason for its existence, leading to the necessity of an unmoved mover (God).

  • Argument from Change: Change requires an uncaused first cause, identified as God.

  • Argument from Degrees of Perfection: There is a standard of perfection; God embodies the absolute perfection.

  • Argument from Design: Order and finality in nature suggest an intelligent designer.

  • The proofs may not include a personal or interior understanding of God but can be applied to oneself.

Understanding God's Nature

1. Challenge in Comprehension:

   • Our knowledge of God is derived from sense-perception based on creaturely experiences.

   • Language formed from these experiences struggles to express the divine essence.

2. The Negative Approach (Via Negativa):

   • Knowing what God is not: denials of corporeality, material attributes, imperfections are used to define God's nature.

   • God is more than the imperfect qualities found in creatures; even negations indicate His transcendence.

   • Example: Saying God is not corporeal points to His nature as entirely immaterial.

3. Simplicity of God:

   • God cannot be composite; essence and existence are identical in God.

   • The statement of divine simplicity reflects absence of all forms of composition found in creation.

4. Attributes of God:

   • Immutable: God does not change; He is pure act without potentiality.

   • Infinite: God's essence is self-existent, not limited like creatures.

   • Eternal: Unlike creatures bound by time, God exists in an eternal act.

   • Unity: God is one; His simplicity encompasses all perfections without differentiation.

Affirmative Way and Analogy

1. Affirmative Predicates:

   • Names such as good, wise, etc., attributed to God indicate attributes of God in an analogical sense and are not merely derivative.

   • When stating that "God is good", this signifies a perfection that exceeds any imperfection found in creatures.

   • Positive Predicates: They express real attributes of God, although imperfectly mirrored in human experience.

2. Analogy of Terms:

   • Concepts used to describe God are neither univocal (exactly the same) nor equivocal (entirely different) but analogical.

   • Understanding the divine qualities involves recognizing the imperfect likeness of creatures to God, and predicates reflect that relation.

3. Analogical Predication Distinctions:

   • Analogy of Proportion: Asserts a predicate applies primarily to one being (God) and secondarily to another (creatures), based on their relation.

   • Analogy of Proportionality: Applies when two proportions resemble each other.

Divine Ideas and Attributes

1. Existence of Divine Ideas:

   • God's knowledge includes ideas; He knows the essence of creation as its exemplary form.

   • This stems from a tradition influenced by neo-Platonism, highlighting a relationship between God's intellect and the multiplicity of objects He knows.

2. Distinction of Divine Attributes:

   • Attributes of God are not really distinct but are manifestations of His singular essence.

   • Different terms are required because of our finite understanding, reflecting rich and infinite divine realities.

3. The Most Appropriate Name of God:

   • "He Who Is" (Exodus 3:14) signifies God’s essence as existence itself, distinguishing divine existence from all creatures.

   • Other names describe specific aspects of His eternal essence but are less complete than the essence of existence itself.

Creation

1. Creation Out of Nothing (Ex Nihilo):

   • God created the world from nothing, which implies that there was no pre-existing matter or substance.

   • Each creature exists owing to God's will, establishing a necessary relation to Him as the Creator.

2. God as First Cause:

   • All finite beings depend on God, asserting the necessity of the uncaused cause in philosophy of being.

These notes encapsulate key aspects of St. Thomas Aquinas' philosophical inquiries into God's existence and nature, emphasizing both the complexities and limitations of human understanding of the divine.

Chapter XXXVI St. Thomas Aquinas-VI: Creation

God as Ipsum Esse

• To describe God as ipsum esse reveals His inner nature.

• All other descriptors (like infinite Justice) are inadequate due to our limited understanding which differentiates concepts such as Justice and Mercy, despite their unity in God.

• Expressions about God stem from human experience and usually reflect specific forms; however, saying "He who is" indicates the infinite essence of God, beyond any specific form.

St. Thomas Aquinas on Creation

Creation from Nothing

1. First Cause:

   • God is the necessary Being from which all contingent beings derive their existence, affirming creation must be ex nihilo (out of nothing).

   • If creation were from pre-existing material, this material would either be God (which contradicts divine simplicity) or something independent of God (which cannot exist).

   • Therefore, God's creation cannot involve change or material cause, reaffirming creation out of nothing as God could not exteriorize Himself.

2. Meaning of Ex Nihilo:

   • Implies that at first there was nothing, and then something exists.

   • Not to be interpreted that nothing is a material; it signifies non ex aliquo, meaning not out of something regardless of its existence.

3. Real Relation of Creatures to God:

   • Every created being holds a real dependence on God, but God does not have a real relation to creatures since that would imply dependence on them, contradicting divine simplicity.

   • The relation of creatures to God is a mental reflective attribution (relatio rationis) from the human perspective; thus, all real relations depend on creatures alone.

God's Power of Creation

1. Divine Omnipotence:

   • Creation power belongs solely to God and cannot be communicated, as no creature possesses the infinite power required for creation.

   • Some philosophers posited intermediary beings due to viewing God’s creation as necessary, but St. Thomas argues God creates freely and directly.

2. Motivation for God's Creation:

   • Creation stems from God’s free will to communicate His goodness, not a need for admiration or anything lacking.

   • Creation’s end reflects the divine goodness and manifests in creatures, with rational beings able to know and love God uniquely.

3. Creation in Time vs. Eternity:

   • St. Thomas maintains that while God could have created from eternity, he rejected claims that historical creation is impossible.

   • He believed some philosophical arguments suggesting eternity were inconclusive, offering the possibility of thinking about creation without a temporal beginning.

4. On Infinite Multitude:

   • St. Thomas followed Aristotle’s repudiation of an actual infinite multitude but hesitated in his final judgment on the necessity of such a multitude based on other conditions of God's will and omnipotence.

5. Understanding Omnipotence:

   • Divine omnipotence encompasses only that which is possible—defined as non-contradictory—rather than all hypothetical scenarios.

   • God cannot create contradictions; rationality shapes the boundaries of what is possible, rooted in God’s nature.

6. God’s Freedom in Creation:

   • There is no necessity for God’s choices in creation; He acted freely, not from coercion, and could have chosen differently without contradicting His nature.

7. Problem of Evil:

   • God is good and does not will evil. Evil as an entity does not exist; it is a privation of good.

   • Physical evils can be permitted as a result of the laws of nature, while moral evils result from human freedom and God permits them for a greater good.

   • St. Thomas delineates between physical and moral evils, seeing freedom as a higher good, necessary for love towards God.