Major Transformations of the Long Nineteenth Century (1750–1900)

This section covers the significant changes that took place between 1750 and 1900, focusing on governance, economy, imperialism, culture, and social interactions.

Governance Revolutions and New Nation-States

  • Nationalism:
    • Definition: The belief that people who share a common language, history, and culture should constitute an independent nation.
French Revolution
  • Causes:
    • Debt from wars.
    • Bread shortages affecting the populace.
    • The "Third Estate" (commoners) feeling unfairly taxed by the nobility and clergy.
  • Effects:
    • The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
    • Spread of revolutionary ideals across Europe.
    • Shift toward constitutional government.
Democracy
  • Definition: A system of government where power is vested in the people, typically through elected representatives.
19th Century Liberalism
  • Ideology emphasizing:
    • Individual liberty.
    • Civil rights.
    • Limited government intervention in the economy.
American Revolution
  • Causes:
    • Colonial resistance to British "taxation without representation."
    • Influence of Enlightenment ideals.
  • Effects:
    • Establishment of the United States of America.
    • Creation of a model for future democratic movements.
Haitian Revolution
  • Led by: Toussaint L'Ouverture.
  • Significance: First successful slave revolt leading to an independent nation (1804).
Spanish American Independence
  • Inspired by the American and French revolutions.
  • Leaders such as Simón Bolívar fought for the liberation of South America from Spanish rule.
National Unification and State Building
  • American Declaration of Independence Ideals:
    • Popular sovereignty.
    • Natural rights: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
    • Right to overthrow tyrannical governments.
  • Declaration of the Rights of Man Ideals:
    • Equality before the law.
    • Freedom of speech/religion.
    • Sovereignty resides in the nation.
Italian Unification (Risorgimento)
  • Leaders: Count Cavour (diplomatic unification) and Giuseppe Garibaldi (military unification).
  • Outcome: Unified fragmented city-states into a single kingdom by 1871.
German Unification
  • Architect: Otto von Bismarck.
  • Strategy: "Blood and Iron"; utilized wars against Denmark, Austria, and France to unite various German states under Prussian leadership.

State-Sponsored Industrialization

  • Muhammad Ali (Egypt):

    • Policies: Forced peasantry to grow cotton for export and constructed state-owned factories to compete with Europe.
    • Limitation: Success limited by British pressure.

  • Meiji Restoration (Japan):

    • Causes: Arrival of U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry exposed Japan's military weaknesses.
    • Changes:
      • Abolished the samurai class.
      • Modernized military forces.
      • Rapidly industrialized via state funding.

Imperialism and Resistance

  • British East India Company (India):
    • Loss of control post-Indian Rebellion of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny); British government assumed direct control (Raj).
  • Japanese Conquests:
    • Territories: Korea, Taiwan, parts of Manchuria.
  • King Leopold II and the Congo:
    • Acquired control through a private company under the pretense of humanitarianism; established a brutal regime for rubber extraction.
Settler Colonies Characteristics
  • Large numbers of Europeans migrating to colonies, often displacing indigenous populations.
  • Examples: Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa.
United States Expansion
  • Motivated by: Manifest Destiny.
  • Methods:
    • Purchase (e.g. Louisiana Purchase).
    • War (e.g. Mexican-American War).
    • Displacement of Native Americans.
Indian Rebellion of 1857: Causes
  • Military: Greased cartridges and requirements for overseas service.
  • Political: Doctrine of Lapse and annexation of princely states.
  • Economic: High land taxes and destruction of local hand-loom industry.
  • Social: Fear of enforced religious conversion and rapid Westernization.
Anti-Imperial Resistance in China
  • Included movements such as:
    • Taiping Rebellion (internal resistance).
    • Boxer Rebellion (anti-foreign, anti-Christian sentiments).
Zulu Kingdom
  • Established by: Shaka Zulu; formed a centralized military state to resist European encroachment.
Ghost Dance Movement
  • Religious movement among Native Americans believing that its performance would lead to the disappearance of white settlers and restoration of traditional lands.

Cultural Developments

Major Enlightenment Ideas
  • Impacts:
    • Reason over tradition.
    • Empiricism (scientific method).
    • Social Contract: The government exists to serve the people.
Enlightenment Ideas and Rebellions
  • Reason over Tradition:
    • Questions arise on obedience to monarchy based on lineage alone.
  • Constitutionalism:
    • Led to the formulation of written laws that limited leaders' powers.
  • Individualism:
    • Emergence of the "citizen" as the fundamental unit of the state versus that of a "subject."
Reform Movements
  • Notable movements:
    • Abolition of slavery.
    • Women's Suffrage movement (right to vote).
    • End of serfdom in Russia.
Justifications for Imperialism
  • Explored through a nationalistic narrative:
    • Identity:
    • "Our people are unique and great."
    • "Our greatness gives us the right to lead others."
    • Economy:
    • "We must protect our national industry."
    • "We need to seize colonies to feed our industry."
    • Security:
    • "We need strong borders."
    • "We need overseas bases to protect our borders."
    • Culture:
    • "Our traditions are the best."
    • "We have a duty to spread our traditions to 'lesser' peoples."
    • Social Darwinism: Concept of "survival of the fittest" applied to human races.
    • Civilizing Mission: The belief that Europeans had a moral duty to impart "progress" and Christianity to non-civilized peoples.

Economic Systems

Key Ideas of Capitalism
  • Fundamental elements:
    • Private ownership.
    • Competition.
    • The "invisible hand" of the market (as espoused by Adam Smith).
Transnational Business
  • Definition: Companies that operate across multiple countries.
  • Example: United Fruit Company.
HSBC (Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation)
  • Originally established to finance British trade in Asia, focusing particularly on opium trade.
  • Managed wealth generated from colonies.
New Practices of HSBC (1865-1900) vs. Traditional Banks (Pre-1865)
  • Headquarters:
    • Traditional: London/Europe.
    • HSBC: Hong Kong.
  • Primary Focus:
    • Traditional: General colonial trade.
    • HSBC: China-specific trade & finance.
  • Currency Control:
    • Traditional: Passive.
    • HSBC: Major note issuer.
  • Client Interaction:
    • Traditional: Direct, often ineffective.
    • HSBC: Managed via compradors (local intermediaries).
Stock Market
  • Definition: A platform for buying and selling shares of companies, facilitating the accumulation of capital for industrial projects.
Factors Influencing Migration Patterns
  • Industrialization:
    • Motivation: Search for factory work.
    • Major Groups: Rural-to-urban migrants.
  • Abolition of Slavery:
    • Motivation: Demand for replacement labor.
    • Major Groups: Indian & Chinese indentured servants.
  • Imperialism:
    • Motivation: Political and territorial control.
    • Major Groups: British, French, and Dutch settlers.
  • Technology:
    • Motivation: Lower cost of travel.
    • Major Groups: European trans-Atlantic migrants.