AP Psychology Exam Notes

Research Design Basic Vocabulary

• Hypothesis: Tentative, falsifiable explanation.
• Operational Definition: Clear, quantifiable variable definition for replication.
• Qualitative Data: Descriptive (e.g., eye color).
• Quantitative Data: Numerical; ideal for statistics.
• Population: Entire group research applies to.
• Sample: Specific participants chosen.

Research Designs

• CORRELATION: Identifies relationships, not causation.
  • Directionality Problem: Unclear which variable influences the other.
  • Third Variable Problem: Another variable causes the relationship.
  • Positive Correlation: Variables increase/decrease together.
  • Negative Correlation: One variable increases, the other decreases.
  • Strength: Measured by #, stronger relationships = tighter clusters on a graph.
• EXPERIMENTS: Manipulate variables to determine cause/effect.
  • Independent Variable: Altered by researcher.
    • Experimental Group: Receives treatment.
    • Control Group: Placebo/baseline.
  • Dependent Variable: Measured variable, depends on IV.
  • Placebo Effect: Effect caused by placebo.
  • Double-Blind: Neither participant nor experimenter knows conditions.
  • Single-Blind: Only participant blind.
  • Confound: Unintended error/flaw.
• Random Assignment: Equalizes group representation.

Other Study Types

• NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: Real-world validity lacks cause/effect.
• CASE STUDY: In-depth study of one person, lacks cause/effect.
• META-ANALYSIS: combines multiple studies to increase sample size and examine effect sizes.

Statistics

• Descriptive Stats: Data shape.
  • Measures of Central Tendency:
    • Mean: Average (normal distribution).
    • Median: Middle # (skewed distribution).
    • Mode: Most frequent.
      • Bimodal: two modes.
  • Skews:
    • Neg skew = mean is to the left, mode to the right.
    • Pos skew = mean to the right.
  • Measure of Variation:
    • Range: distance between smallest and biggest #
    • Standard Deviation: Spread from mean (bigger # = more spread).
• Inferential Statistics: Establishes significance.
  • Statistical Significance: Not due to chance (p<.05).
  • Effect Size: Practical significance.

Ethical Guidelines

• Confidentiality: Names kept secret.
• Informed Consent: Agreement to participate.
• Informed assent – minors AND their parents must agree
• Debriefing: True purpose revealed (after deception).
• Deception: Must be warranted.
• No Harm: Mental/physical.

Additional Vocabulary

• Surveys: Correlation, self-report bias.
  • Social desirability – ppl lie to look good
  • Wording effects – how you frame the question can impact your answers
• Random Sample (selection): Increases generalizability.
• Representative Sample: Mimics population.
• Convenience Sample: Based on availability, less representative.
• Sampling Bias: Non-representative sample.
• Experimenter/Participant Bias: Influences outcome.
• Cognitive Bias:
  • Confirmation Bias: Seek confirming info.
  • Hindsight Bias: "I knew it all along."
  • Overconfidence: Overestimate abilities.
  • Hawthorne Effect: Behavior changes when watched.

Biological Basis

• NT = neurotransmitter, AP = action potential, NS = nervous system
• Evolutionary psychology: natural selection influences behavior.
• Heredity (nature): Gene influence.
• Environment (nurture): Outside influence.
• Twin/Adoption Studies: Separate genetics vs. environment.

Nervous System

• Central NS: Brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral NS: rest of the nervous system.
  • Somatic NS: Voluntary.
  • Autonomic NS: Involuntary.
    • Sympathetic NS: Fight/flight.
    • Parasympathetic NS: Rest/digest.

Neuron and Neural Firing

• Neuron: Basic cell.
  • Dendrites: Receive NTs.
  • Axon: AP travels down.
  • Myelin Sheath: Speeds up AP.
  • Synapse: Gap b/w neurons.
• SENSORY neurons – receive sense signals from environ.–send signal to brain
• MOTOR neurons – signals to move – send signals from brain
• Interneurons – cells in spinal cord /brain responsible for reflex arc
  • Reflex arc – important stimuli skips the brain and routes through the spinal cord for immediate reactions (hand on a hot flame)
• GLIA – support cells – give nutrients and clean up around neurons
• Resting potential: -70mv (negative).
• Depolarization: charge of neuron briefly switches from neg to pos. – triggers the AP
• Threshold of depolarization: stimulus strength must reach this point to start the AP
• All or nothing principle: stimulus must trigger the AP past its threshold, but does not increase the intensity or speed of the response (flush the toilet)
• Refractory period: neuron must rest and reset before it can send another AP (toilet resets)

Neurotransmitters (NT)

• Chemicals in synapse.
• Excitatory: increase APs.
• Inhibitory: decrease APs.
  • GABA: Major inhibitory NT.
  • Glutamate: Major excitatory NT.
  • Dopamine: Reward, fine movement.
  • Serotonin: Mood, emotion, sleep.
  • Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory, movement.
  • Norepinephrine: Sympathetic NS.
  • Endorphins: Decrease pain.
  • Substance P: pain regulation (abnormality increases pain and inflammation)

Hormones

• Oxytocin: Love, bonding.
• Adrenaline: Fight/flight.
• Leptin: Fullness.
• Ghrelin: Hunger.
• Melatonin: Sleep.

Drugs

• Agonist: Mimics NT.
• Antagonist: Blocks NT.
• Reuptake: NTs reabsorbed. (antidepressants cause reuptake inhibition (block reuptake) – treatment for depression
• Depressants: Decrease NS activity (alcohol).
• Stimulants: Increase NS activity (caffeine & cocaine).
• Hallucinogens: Hallucinations (Marijuana).
• Opioids: Relieve pain (heroin).

The Brain

• Cerebellum: Movement, balance.
• Brainstem/Medulla: Vital organs.
• Reticular Activating System: Arousal, sleep
• Cerebral Cortex: Higher thought.
• Limbic System:
  • Amygdala: Emotions, fear.
  • Hippocampus: Memory.
  • Hypothalamus: Reward, homeostasis, link to endocrine system
  • Thalamus: Relay center.
  • Pituitary Gland: Talks w/ endocrine sys and hypothalamus – release hormones
• Occipital Lobe: Vision.
• Frontal Lobe: Decision making, movement, personality, language.
  • Prefrontal cortex: front of frontal lobe – executive function
  • Motor Cortex: back of frontal lobe - map of our motor receptors – controls skeletal movement
• Parietal Lobe: Sensations, touch.
  • Somatosensory Cortex: map of our touch receptors
• Temporal Lobe: Hearing, face recognition, language.
• Association areas:receive input from multiple areas / lobes to integrate info
  • Broca’s Area: Speech production.
  • Wernicke’s Area: Speech comprehension.
• Corpus Callosum: connects the 2 hemispheres

Brain Plasticity

• Brain changes through experience.

Endocrine System

• Pituitary Gland: Growth hormones.

Brain Research

• EEG: Broad brain activity.
• fMRI: Specific activity, measures oxygen.
• Lesion: Destruction of tissue.

Diseases & Disorders To Know

• Multiple sclerosis: destruction of myelin sheath
• Myasthenia gravis: acetylcholine blocked
• Blindsight: caused by damage to primary visual cortex ppl can “see” ie catch a ball etc despite being blind – evidence for association areas
• Prosopagnosia: Face blindness.
• Broca’s aphasia – damage to Broca’s area – stuttered speech
• Wernicke’s aphasia – damage to Wernicke’s – jumbled speech.
• Phantom limb pain – pain from a limb that no longer is there (amputated) –caused by brain plasticity
• Epilepsy – seizures– too much / little Glutamate / GABA
• Alzheimer’s – destruction of acetylcholine in hippocampus, memory loss

Sleep

• Consciousness – awareness of cognitive processes (asleep or awake?)
• Circadian Rhythms: 24-hour clock.
• Beta Waves: Awake.
• Alpha Waves: Drowsy.
• NREM:
  • NREM 1: Hypnagogic sensations.
  • NREM 2: Sleep spindles.
  • NREM 3: Delta waves, deep sleep.
• Rapid Eye Movement (REM): dreaming, cognitive processing
• Cycle: 90 minutes, REM gets longer.
• REM Rebound: More intense REM after disruptions.

Dream Theories

• Activation Synthesis: Random neural bursts create dreams.
• Consolidation dream theory: storage of memories

Sleep Necessity

• Consolidation – storage of memories
• Restoration – helps regenerate the immune system and restore energy

Sleep Disorders

• Insomnia: Inability to sleep.
• Somnambulism (sleep walking) – happens during stage 3 - NOT during REM
• Narcolepsy: Falls into REM suddenly.
• Sleep Apnea: Stops breathing.
• REM behavior disorder: malfunction of mechanism that paralyze you during REM

Sensation

• Sensation – receive stimulus energy from environment
• Transduction – convert that info into APs
• Perception – brain interprets the info

Thresholds

• Absolute Threshold: Detect 50% of time (is it there)
• Just Noticeable Difference: Detect change.
• WEBER’S LAW: Need proportional change to notice
• Sensory Adaptation: Diminished sensitivity.
• Synesthesia: Senses blend (see sounds).

Visual System

• Lens – focuses light on retina
• Retina – contains photoreceptors (rods/cones/ ganglion cells)
• Fovea – area of best vision(cones here)
• Rods – black/white, dark adaptation, located along sides of retina
• Cones – color, bright light (red, green, blue), only in the fovea
• Ganglion cells – create optic nerve (opponent process theory happens here)
• Blind spot – occurs where the optic nerve leaves the eye

Visual System Vocab

• Accommodation :lens changes curvature to focus images on retina
• Nearsightedness - better vision near
• Farsightedness – better vision far

Theories of Color Vision

• Trichromatic – three cones for receiving color
  • Blue –short waves
  • Green –medium waves
  • Red –long waves
• Opponent Process – complementary colors are processed in ganglion cells – explains why we see an after image
  *Red/green
  *Blue/yellow
  *Black/white
• Color deficiency:
  • Damage to, or missing - cones or ganglion cells
    • Red/green is most common
    • Dichromatism – missing 1 cone
    • Monochromatism – only have rods

Auditory System

• Wavelength – distance bw peaks - pitch
  • Long waves = low pitch
  • Narrow waves = high pitch
• Amplitude – height of wave – loudness
  • Short waves = soft
  • Tall waves = loud
• Place theory – location where hair cells bends determines sound (high pitches)
• Frequency theory – rate at which action potentials are sent determines sound (low pitches)
• Volley theory – groups of neurons fire APs out of sync
  Sound localization –which ear gets the waves first tells location of sound
  Conduction deafness – damage to bones of ear and ear drum cause hearing loss
  Sensorineural – damage to cochlea, hairs in cochlea, or nerve – usually due to old age and loud noise

Other Senses

• Vestibular: Balance.
• Kinesthetic: Body position.
• Pain: Gate-control theory.
• Taste (gustation): 6 taste receptors: bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory), oleogustus (fatty/oily) ▪
• Smell (olfaction): Only sense NOT through thalamus
• Pheromones produce chemical signals within a species for attraction

Cognition

• Top-Down Processing: Whole idea to parts.

• Bottom-Up Processing: Parts to whole idea.

• Schemas: Preexisting mental concepts.

• Perceptual Set: See things as part of a group.
  Constancies: recognize that objects do not physically change despite changes in sensory input (size, shape, brightness)

• Apparent movement: objects can appear moving when they aren’t (flip books, blinking lights)

• Inattentional Blindness: Fail to notice added thing.

• Change Blindness: Fail to notice change.

• Cocktail Party Effect: Notice name spoken.

• Binocular Depth Cues (3D image):

  • Retinal Disparity: Different retinal images.
  • Convergence: Eyes strain inward.

• Monocular Depth Cues (2D image):

  • Interposition: Overlapping images closer.
  • Relative Size: Smaller objects further.
  • Linear Perspective: Parallel lines converge.
  • Texture Gradient: Coarser objects closer.

Thinking/Problem Solving

• Concepts: Mental categories.
• Prototypes: Ideal examples.
• Algorithms: Step-by-step strategies.
• Heuristics: Shortcuts
  • Representative: Stereotypes.
  • Availability: First thing that pops up.
• Metacognition: Thinking about thinking.
• Mental Set - keep using one strategy to solve a problem – cannot think outside the box
• Functional Fixedness: Can only see one (common) use for an item– cannot think outside of the box
• Sunk Cost fallacy – continue something bc you’re already invested (might as well finish it now…) – when stopping would be more beneficial
• Gambler’s Fallacy – believe something is more likely to happen bc its “due” – the dice have no memory
• Divergent thinking: ability to think about many different things at once (Creative) – hindered by func. fixedness
• Convergent thinking: limits creativity – one answer
• Executive functioning: generating, organizing, planning, carrying out goal directed behvs

Memory Encoding

• Automatic encoding – requires no effort (what did you have for breakfast?)

• Effortful encoding–requires work (school)

• Structural encoding (shallow) – emphasis on physical structural

• Phonemic encoding (intermediate)– emphasis on what words sound like

• Semantic encoding (deep) = emphasis on meaning of the words

• Elaborative Rehearsal – strategies to enhance encoding like below:
  *Imagery – attaching images to information makes it easier to remember
  *Dual encoding – using multiple methods of processing to remember (photo + words)
  *Chunking – break info into smaller units to aid in memory (like a phone #)
  *Mnemonics – shortcuts to help us remember info easier
  *Acronyms – using letter to remember something (PEMDAS)
  *Method of loci – using locations to remember a list of items in order

• Context dependent memory – where you learn the info you best remember the info (scuba divers testing)

• State dependent memory – the physical state you were in when learning is the way you should be when testing (study high, test high)

• Mood congruent memory – remember happy events when happy, sad when sad

• Forgetting curve: recall decreases rapidly at first, then reaches a plateau after which little more is forgotten

• Distributed practice (spacing effect) – review a little every night (resets forgetting curve )

• Massed practice – cramming

• Testing effect – quizzing over material periodically

Storage

• Multi-Store Model – Sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory model
• Sensory Memory – stores all incoming stimuli that you receive (first you have to a pay attention)
• Iconic Memory – visual memory, lasts 0.3 seconds
• Echoic Memory – auditory memory, lasts 2-3 seconds
• Short Term Memory – info passes from sensory memory to STM – lasts 30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items
  • Maintenance Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets the clock
• Long term memory – lasts a life time
  • Explicit – require conscious effort
    • Episodic: events
    • Semantic: facts
  • Implicit- automatic, no effort needed:
    • Classical conditioning
    • Priming: info that is seen earlier “primes” you to remember something later on
    • Procedural: skills (muscle memory)

Memory organization

• Hierarchies: memory is stored according to a clusters of related info
• Categorically – stored in categories
• Semantic networks: webs of semi- related info
  • Tip of the tongue phenomenon – can’t remember the name of something bs you’re stuck elsewhere in your semantic network
• Schemas – frameworks that organize info
  • Assimilation: incorporate new info into existing schema Cat is a dog b/c 4 legs.
  • Accommodation: adjust existing schemas to incorporate new information Cat and dogs = different.

Memory Storage

• Acetylcholine neurons in the hippocampus for episodic and semantic

• Memories before age 3 are unreliable (infantile amnesia) – hippocampus still forming

• Cerebellum for implicit / procedural memories

• Amygdala for emotional memories

• Frontal lobe for encoding and retrieval

• Long-term potentiation: neural basis of memory – connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation (more firing of neurons)
  *Memory consolidation – memories are strengthened and made more stable with time

Retrieval

• Serial Position Effect:
  • Primacy happens because of LTM.
  • Recency because it is still in STM.
• Recall: Remember without cues.
• Recognition: Remember with cues.
• Proactive interference OLD info blocks new info
• Retroactive interference NEW info blocks old info

Intelligence

• Single form of intelligence (g factor) - general intelligence (g) underlies all mental abilities (typical IQ tests of today). If you’re smart in one area you’re smart in other areas too