Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 1 Flashcards

Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

  • Anatomy:

    • Phonetic pronunciation: a-NAT-ō-mē
    • Word roots: ana- = up; -tomy = process of cutting
    • Definition: The science of body structures and the structural relationships among them.
    • Historical basis: First studied through dissection (dis-SEK-shun; dis- = apart; -section = act of cutting), which involves the careful cutting apart of body structures to analyze their relationships.
    • Modern advancements: Includes noninvasive imaging techniques (such as X-rays, MRI, CT scans).

  • Physiology:

    • Phonetic pronunciation: fiz'-ē-OL-ō-jē
    • Word roots: physio- = nature; -logy = study of
    • Definition: The science of body functions—specifically how body parts work and operate.

  • Relationship Between Structure and Function:

    • Anatomical structure reflects physiological function.
    • Examples:
    • Skull bones: Join tightly to form a rigid protective case around the brain.
    • Finger bones: Loosely joined to permit a wide variety of precise movements.
    • Pulmonary alveoli (air sacs in lungs): Feature extremely thin walls, allowing rapid diffusion and movement of inhaled oxygen into the bloodstream.

Branches of Anatomy and Physiology

  • Branches of Anatomy:

    • Developmental Biology: The study of individual growth and development from fertilization to death.
    • Embryology (em'-brē-OL-ō-jē; embry- = embryo; -logy = study of): The study of the first 88 weeks of growth and development following the fertilization of a human egg (the earliest stage of developmental biology).
    • Cell Biology: The study of cellular structures and their functions.
    • Histology (his-TOL-ō-jē; hist- = tissue): The microscopic study of tissue structures.
    • Gross Anatomy: The study of structures that can be examined without the aid of a microscope.
    • Systemic Anatomy: The study of the structure of specific systems of the body (such as the nervous system or respiratory system).
    • Regional Anatomy: The study of specific regions of the body (such as the head or chest).
    • Surface (Topographical) Anatomy: The study of surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy through visualization and palpation (gentle touching).
    • Imaging Anatomy: The study of internal body structures visualized through technologies such as X-rays, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT) scans, and other clinical analytical methods.
    • Clinical Anatomy: The practical application of anatomical knowledge to medicine, dentistry, and other health sciences to aid in diagnosing and treating disease.
    • Pathological Anatomy (path'-ō-LOJ-i-kal; path- = disease): The study of structural changes (ranging from gross to microscopic levels) associated with disease.

  • Branches of Physiology:

    • Molecular Physiology: The study of the functions of individual biological molecules, such as proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
    • Neurophysiology (NOOR-o-fiz-e-ol'-ō-jē; neuro- = nerve): The study of the functional properties of nerve cells.
    • Endocrinology (en'-do-kri-NOL-ō-jē; endo- = within; -crin = secretion): The study of hormones (chemical regulators in the blood) and how they control body functions.
    • Cardiovascular Physiology (kar-dē-ō-VAS-kū-lar; cardi- = heart; vascular = blood vessels): The study of the functions of the heart and blood vessels.
    • Immunology (im'-ū-NOL-ō-jē; immun- = not susceptible): The study of the body's defenses against disease-causing agents.
    • Respiratory Physiology (RES-pi-ra-tōr-ē; respira- = to breathe): The study of the functions of the air passageways and lungs.
    • Renal Physiology (RE-nal; ren- = kidney): The study of the functions of the kidneys.
    • Exercise Physiology: The study of changes in cell and organ functions resulting from muscular activity.
    • Pathophysiology (Path-o-fiz-e-ol'-ō-jē): The study of functional changes associated with disease and aging.

Levels of Structural Organization

  • Structural Hierarchy:

    • The body is organized into 66 hierarchical levels, comparable to language elements (letters →\rightarrow words →\rightarrow sentences →\rightarrow paragraphs →\rightarrow chapters →\rightarrow books).

  • 1. Chemical Level:

    • Analogous to letters of the alphabet.
    • Atoms: Smallest units of matter participating in chemical reactions. Essential life-maintaining elements include Carbon (CC), Hydrogen (HH), Oxygen (OO), Nitrogen (NN), Phosphorus (PP), Calcium (CaCa), and Sulfur (SS).
    • Molecules: Two or more atoms joined together. Examples include deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA; genetic material) and glucose (blood sugar).

  • 2. Cellular Level:

    • Analogous to words.
    • Molecules combine to form cells, which are the basic structural and functional units of an organism.
    • Cells are the smallest living units in the human body.
    • Examples: Smooth muscle cells (muscle fibers), nerve cells, epithelial cells.

  • 3. Tissue Level:

    • Analogous to sentences.
    • Tissues consist of groups of cells and surrounding extracellular material working together to perform a specific function.
    • Four Basic Tissue Types:
    • Epithelial Tissue: Covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs and cavities, and forms glands.
    • Connective Tissue: Connects, supports, and protects body organs while distributing blood vessels to other tissues.
    • Muscular Tissue: Contracts to move body parts and generates body heat in the process.
    • Nervous Tissue: Carries information between body regions via nerve impulses.
    • Example: Smooth muscle tissue composed of tightly packed smooth muscle cells.

  • 4. Organ Level:

    • Analogous to paragraphs.
    • Organs are structures composed of 22 or more different types of tissues; they possess specific functions and recognizable shapes.
    • Examples: Stomach, skin, bones, heart, liver, lungs, brain.
    • Tissue composition of the stomach:
    • Outer covering: Layer of epithelial tissue and connective tissue reducing friction against adjacent organs.
    • Middle layers: 33 layers of smooth muscle tissue that contract to churn, mix, and push food into the small intestine.
    • Innermost lining: Epithelial tissue layer producing digestive fluid and chemicals.

  • 5. System (Organ-System) Level:

    • Analogous to chapters.
    • Consists of related organs with a common function.
    • Example: Digestive system (mouth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas).
    • Dual-system organs: A single organ can belong to multiple systems; for example, the pancreas functions in both the digestive system and the endocrine system.

  • 6. Organismal Level:

    • Analogous to a complete book.
    • An organism is any living individual.
    • Represents the highest level of organization, combining all functional body parts into a single total organism.

The Eleven Systems of the Human Body

  • 1. Integumentary System:

    • Components: Skin and associated structures, including hair, fingernails, toenails, sweat glands, and oil glands.
    • Functions: Protects the body; helps regulate body temperature; eliminates certain wastes; aids in vitamin DD synthesis; detects sensations (touch, pain, warmth, cold); stores fat and provides thermal insulation.

  • 2. Skeletal System:

    • Components: Bones and joints of the body and their associated cartilages.
    • Functions: Supports and protects the body; provides surface area for muscle attachments; aids body movements; houses cells that produce blood cells (hemopoiesis); stores minerals and lipids (fats).

  • 3. Muscular System:

    • Components: Specifically skeletal muscle tissue (muscle attached to bones; distinct from smooth and cardiac muscles).
    • Functions: Participates in body movements (e.g., walking); maintains body posture; serves as the primary source of body heat production.

  • 4. Nervous System:

    • Components: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and special sense organs (such as eyes and ears).
    • Functions: Generates action potentials (nerve impulses) to regulate body activities; detects internal and external environmental changes; interprets changes; responds by triggering muscular contractions or glandular secretions.

  • 5. Endocrine System:

    • Components: Hormone-producing glands (pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, suprarenal [adrenal] glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes) and hormone-producing cells in other organs.
    • Functions: Regulates body activities by secreting hormones (chemical messengers transported in blood from an endocrine gland/tissue to target organs).

  • 6. Cardiovascular System:

    • Components: Blood, heart, and blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries).
    • Functions: Heart pumps blood through vessels; blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and transports carbon dioxide and wastes away; regulates acid-base balance, temperature, and water content of body fluids; blood components assist in disease defense and damaged vessel repair.

  • 7. Lymphoid (Lymphatic) System and Immunity:

    • Components: Lymphatic fluid (lymph plasma) and lymphatic vessels; spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils (pharyngeal, palatine, lingual); red bone marrow; immune cells (B cells, T cells, and others).
    • Functions: Returns proteins and fluid to the blood; transports lipids from the gastrointestinal tract to the blood; contains maturation and proliferation sites for B cells and T cells that protect against pathogens.

  • 8. Respiratory System:

    • Components: Lungs and air passageways (nasal cavity, oral cavity, pharynx [throat], larynx [voice box], trachea [windpipe], bronchial tubes).
    • Functions: Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air; regulates acid-base balance of body fluids; produces sound via air passing through vocal cords.

  • 9. Digestive System:

    • Components: Digestive canal (gastrointestinal tract) organs—mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus; accessory organs—salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas.
    • Functions: Achieves physical and chemical breakdown of food; absorbs nutrients; eliminates solid wastes.

  • 10. Urinary System:

    • Components: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra.
    • Functions: Produces, stores, and eliminates urine; eliminates wastes; regulates volume and chemical composition of blood; maintains fluid acid-base balance; maintains mineral balance; assists in regulating red blood cell production.

  • 11. Genital (Reproductive) Systems:

    • Components: Gonads (testes in males, ovaries in females) and associated organs.
    • Female: Uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, mammary glands.
    • Male: Epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal glands, prostate, penis.
    • Functions: Gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a new organism; gonads release hormones regulating reproduction and other body processes; associated organs store and transport gametes; mammary glands produce milk.

Noninvasive Diagnostic Techniques

  • Definition: Diagnostic procedures that do not require inserting an instrument or device through the skin or a body opening.

  • Techniques:

    • Inspection:
    • Examiner observes the body for any visual changes that deviate from normal.
    • Example: Examining the oral (mouth) cavity for evidence of disease.
    • Palpation (pal-PA-shun; palp- = gently touching):
    • Examiner feels body surfaces with the hands.
    • Example: Palpating the neck or abdomen to detect enlarged or tender lymph nodes or internal organs.
    • Auscultation (aws-kul-TĀ-shun; auscult- = listening):
    • Examiner listens to body sounds to evaluate organ function, frequently utilizing a stethoscope to amplify acoustic signals.
    • Example: Auscultation of the lungs during breathing to detect crackling sounds indicating abnormal fluid accumulation.
    • Percussion (pur-KUSH-un; percus- = beat through):
    • Examiner taps on the body surface with fingertips and listens to the resulting acoustic pitch and vibration.
    • Hollow cavities/spaces emit different sounds than solid organs.
    • Applications: Detects abnormal fluid in lungs or air in intestines; provides structural information regarding size, consistency, and position of underlying tissues.

Basic Life Processes

  • Distinguishing Characteristics of Life:

    • Six vital processes distinguish living organisms from nonliving matter.

  • 1. Metabolism (me-TAB-ō-lizm):

    • The sum of all chemical processes occurring within the body.
    • Catabolism (ka-TAB-ō-lizm; catabol- = throwing down; -ism = a condition): The breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components (e.g., splitting food proteins into amino acids).
    • Anabolism (a-NAB-ō-lizm; anabol- = a raising up): The synthesis of complex chemical substances from smaller, simpler components (e.g., combining amino acids to build structural proteins for muscles and bones).

  • 2. Responsiveness:

    • The body's ability to detect and respond to changes in internal or external environments.
    • Internal change example: Elevated body temperature during a fever.
    • External change example: Turning head toward squealing brakes to prepare for potential danger.
    • Cellular responses: Nerve cells respond by generating electrical signals (nerve impulses / action potentials); muscle cells respond by contracting to generate physical force.

  • 3. Movement:

    • Motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, or structures within cells.
    • Examples:
    • Whole body: Coordinated leg muscle movement during walking or running.
    • Organ level: Gallbladder contracting to release bile into the digestive canal following a fat-containing meal.
    • Cellular level: White blood cells migrating from blood vessels into infected or damaged tissue to clean up and repair the area.
    • Intracellular level: Secretory vesicles moving within cells to execute cellular functions.

  • 4. Growth:

    • An increase in body size resulting from an increase in cell size, an increase in cell quantity, or both.
    • Can also occur via accumulation of extracellular material between cells (e.g., mineral deposits building up between bone cells, increasing bone length and width).

  • 5. Differentiation (dif'-er-en-she-Ā-shun):

    • The developmental transition of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state.
    • Stem Cells: Precursor cells capable of cell division and subsequent differentiation into specialized cells (e.g., unspecialized red bone marrow stem cells giving rise to all distinct blood cell types).

  • 6. Reproduction (re-prō-DUK-shun):

    • (1) Formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement (via cellular division).
    • (2) Production of a new individual through fertilization of an ovum by a sperm to form a zygote, followed by repeated cell division and differentiation.

  • Clinical Indicators of Death:

    • Clinical death occurs when life processes cease properly, leading to tissue death.
    • Key clinical markers: Loss of heartbeat, absence of spontaneous breathing, and loss of brain functions.

Clinical Connection: Autopsy

  • Definition: An autopsy (AW-top-sē = seeing with one's own eyes) or necropsy is a postmortem (after-death) examination of the body and dissection of its internal organs.

  • Clinical and Legal Purposes:

    • Confirm or determine the precise cause of death.
    • Uncover illnesses or diseases undetected during life.
    • Assess the extent of injuries and determine their contribution to death.
    • Accumulate statistical epidemiological data and educate health-care students.
    • Identify hereditary or genetic conditions affecting offspring or siblings (e.g., congenital heart defects).
    • Fulfill legal requirements (e.g., criminal investigations).
    • Resolve legal/financial disputes between insurance companies and beneficiaries.

Homeostasis and Body Fluids

  • Definition of Homeostasis:

    • Homeostasis (hō'-mē-ō-STĀ-sis; homeo- = sameness; -stasis = standing still) is the condition of relative stability in the body's internal environment maintained by continuous interplay among regulatory systems.
    • Dynamic state: Parameters shift within a narrow physiological range compatible with life.
    • Example parameter: Normal blood glucose level remains between 7070 and 110 mg110\,\text{mg} of glucose per 100 mL100\,\text{mL} of blood.

  • Body Fluids:

    • Dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals located inside and surrounding body cells.
    • Intracellular Fluid (ICF) (intra- = inside): Fluid contained within cells; also designated as cytosol.
    • Extracellular Fluid (ECF) (extra- = outside): Fluid situated outside cells. Functions as the body's internal environment.
    • Interstitial Fluid (in'-ter-STISH-al; inter- = between): ECF occupying narrow spaces between tissue cells.
    • Blood Plasma: ECF within blood vessels.
    • Lymph Plasma: ECF within lymphatic vessels.
    • Cerebrospinal Fluid: ECF surrounding and within the brain and spinal cord.
    • Synovial Fluid: ECF residing within joint cavities.
    • Aqueous Humor and Vitreous Body: ECF within the structures of the eyes.

  • Environmental Exchanges & Material Transport:

    • Internal Environment: Extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid and blood plasma) directly surrounding body cells.
    • External Environment: The physical space surrounding the entire body.
    • System Contributions:
    • Integumentary System: Covers body surface; shields internal environment from external damaging agents.
    • Respiratory System: Inhales oxygen into blood plasma; exhales carbon dioxide waste.
    • Digestive System: Takes up nutrients from external environment into blood plasma; excretes solid waste.
    • Cardiovascular System: Pumping heart moves blood plasma containing nutrients/oxygen. Nutrients and oxygen cross blood capillary walls into interstitial fluid, where cells absorb and metabolize them.
    • Waste Removal: Cellular metabolism generates waste (CO2CO_2, nitrogenous wastes like urea and ammonia) into interstitial fluid, which diffuses across capillary walls back into blood plasma. Cardiovascular system transports CO2CO_2 to lungs (respiratory system) and nitrogenous wastes to kidneys (urinary system).

Control of Homeostasis and Feedback Systems

  • Sources of Homeostatic Disruptions:

    • External Environment: Physical insults (e.g., extreme heat on a summer day, hypoxia during a 2-mile2\text{-mile} run).
    • Internal Environment: Internal chemical drops (e.g., low blood glucose from skipping breakfast).
    • Psychological/Social Stress: School and workplace demands.

  • Regulatory Systems:

    • Nervous System: Sends electrical signals (nerve impulses / action potentials) to target organs to produce rapid corrective changes.
    • Endocrine System: Glands secrete messenger molecules (hormones) into the blood for slower, long-term regulation.

  • Feedback Systems (Feedback Loops):

    • A cycle of events in which a controlled condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, and reevaluated.
    • Controlled Condition (Controlled Variable): Monitored body parameter (e.g., body temperature, blood pressure, blood glucose level).
    • Stimulus: Any disruption that alters a controlled condition.

  • Three Basic Components of a Feedback System:

    • 1. Receptor:
    • Body structure monitoring changes in a controlled condition.
    • Sends input along an afferent pathway (AF-er-ent; af- = toward; -ferent = carried) toward the control center.
    • Input format: Nerve impulses or chemical signals.
    • Example: Free nerve endings in skin detecting temperature drops.
    • 2. Control Center:
    • Sets the target set point (narrow range for condition maintenance).
    • Evaluates afferent input and issues output commands.
    • Sends output along an efferent pathway (EF-er-ent; ef- = away from) away from the control center.
    • Output format: Nerve impulses, hormones, or chemical signals.
    • Example: The brain.
    • 3. Effector:
    • Body structure receiving efferent output from control center.
    • Produces a response or physiological effect that modifies the controlled condition.
    • Example: Skeletal muscles shivering to generate thermal heat.

Negative vs. Positive Feedback Systems

  • Negative Feedback Systems:

    • Reverses a change in a controlled condition.
    • Slows and terminates as the condition returns to set point balance.
    • Regulates conditions that remain relatively stable over extended periods.
    • Example: Regulation of Blood Pressure (BP):
    • Stimulus: Factor causing BP to rise.
    • Receptors: Baroreceptors (pressure-sensitive nerve cells in blood vessel walls) detect elevation and send nerve impulses (input) to brain.
    • Control Center: Brain processes input and sends nerve impulses (output) to effectors.
    • Effectors: Heart and blood vessels.
    • Response: Heart rate decreases and blood vessels dilate (widen).
    • Result: BP drops back to normal, negating original stimulus.

  • Positive Feedback Systems:

    • Strengthens or reinforces a change in a controlled condition.
    • Effector output adds to initial change rather than reversing it.
    • Continues until an external mechanism interrupts the cycle ("runaway" potential if unchecked).
    • Regulates infrequent conditions.
    • Example 1: Normal Childbirth (Labor Contractions):
    • Stimulus: Initial labor contractions push fetus into cervix.
    • Controlled Condition: Stretching of the cervix.
    • Receptors: Stretch-sensitive nerve cells in cervix detect stretch and send nerve impulses (input) to brain.
    • Control Center: Brain interprets input and signals pituitary gland to release oxytocin hormone (output) into blood.
    • Effectors: Smooth muscles in uterine wall contract more forcefully.
    • Response: Fetus is pushed further down, increasing cervical stretch.
    • Interruption: Birth of baby relieves cervical stretch, terminating oxytocin release and breaking loop.
    • Example 2: Severe Blood Loss:
    • Severe hemorrhage lowers BP →\rightarrow reduced oxygen to heart cells →\rightarrow weakened cardiac pumping →\rightarrow further BP drop. Potentially lethal cycle without medical intervention.
    • Example 3: Blood Clotting:
    • Operates via positive feedback mechanism to seal blood vessel damage.

Homeostatic Imbalances, Health, and Disease

  • Determinants of Health:

    • Personal lifestyle, environmental factors, genetic makeup, air quality, nutrition, and psychological thoughts.

  • Impact of Homeostatic Imbalances:

    • Moderate homeostatic imbalance leads to disorder or disease.
    • Severe homeostatic imbalance results in death.

  • Key Terminology:

    • Disorder: Any abnormality of structure or function.
    • Disease: A specific illness characterized by a recognizable set of signs and symptoms.
    • Local Disease: Affects one specific part or limited region of the body (e.g., sinus infection).
    • Systemic Disease: Affects either the entire body or several parts of it (e.g., influenza).
    • Symptoms: Subjective changes in body functions felt by the patient that are not directly observable by an examiner (e.g., headache, nausea, anxiety).
    • Signs: Objective changes that a health-care professional can observe and measure.
    • Anatomical signs: Rash, swelling.
    • Physiological signs: Fever, elevated blood pressure, paralysis.

  • Related Scientific Disciplines:

    • Epidemiology (ep'-i-dē-mē-OL-ō-jē; epi- = upon; -demi = people): Science tracking why, when, and where diseases occur and how they transmit among individuals.
    • Pharmacology (far'-ma-KOL-ō-jē; pharmac- = drug): Science dealing with the actions, effects, and uses of drugs in disease treatment.

  • Clinical Connection: Diagnosis of Disease:

    • Diagnosis (di-ag-NO-sis; dia- = through; -gnosis = knowledge): Science and skill of distinguishing one disorder or disease from another.
    • Bases of Diagnosis: Patient symptoms/signs, medical history, physical exam, laboratory testing.
    • Components of Medical History: Chief complaint (primary reason for visit), history of present illness, past medical problems, family medical history, social history, review of symptoms.
    • Components of Physical Exam: Inspection, palpation, auscultation, percussion, measurement of vital signs (temperature, pulse, respiratory rate, blood pressure), and laboratory tests.

Basic Anatomical Terminology

  • Anatomical Position (an'-a-TOM-i-kal):

    • Standard reference position assumed for all anatomical descriptions.
    • Subject stands erect, facing observer directly.
    • Head level with eyes facing straight forward.
    • Lower limbs parallel; feet flat on floor directed forward.
    • Upper limbs positioned at sides with palms facing forward.

  • Reclining Body Positions:

    • Prone Position: Body lying facedown.
    • Supine Position: Body lying faceup.

  • Major External Body Regions:

    • Head: Consists of skull bones protecting the brain (cranial cavity) and facial bones forming the front head structure (eyes, nose, mouth, forehead, cheeks, chin).
    • Neck: Supports head and connects it to the trunk.
    • Trunk: Consists of chest, abdomen, and pelvis.
    • Upper Limbs: Attach to trunk; consist of shoulder, armpit (axilla; ak-SIL-a), arm (shoulder to elbow), forearm (elbow to wrist), wrist, and hand.
    • Lower Limbs: Attach to trunk; consist of buttock (gluteal region), thigh (buttock to knee), leg (knee to ankle), ankle, and foot.
    • Groin: Creased region on front body surface where trunk joins thighs.

  • Directional Terms:

    • Standard terms describing relative positions of body structures, paired in opposites (e.g., anterior [front] vs. posterior [back]).

  • Planes and Sections:

    • Imaginary flat surfaces passing through body structures.
    • Sagittal Plane (SAJ-i-tal; sagitt- = arrow): Longitudinal plane dividing body/organ into right and left sides.
    • Midsagittal (Median) Plane: Passes directly through midline, dividing body/organ into equal right and left sides. Midline = imaginary longitudinal line dividing body into equal halves.
    • Parasagittal (Paramedian) Plane (para- = near): Divides body/organ into unequal right and left sides.
    • Coronal (Frontal) Plane (kö-RŌ-nal; corona = crown): Longitudinal plane dividing body/organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.

Checkpoints and Analytical Questions

  • Checkpoint 1 (Respiratory Therapy):

    • Respiratory therapists strive to improve breathing and gas exchange functions.
    • Structures involved: Lungs, air passageways (nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes), and respiratory muscles.

  • Checkpoint 2 (Structure-Function Relationship):

    • Example: The structure of thin capillary walls allows rapid nutrient and gas exchange, matching their physiological role.

  • Checkpoint 3 (Fundamental Terminology):

    • Atom: Smallest unit of matter participating in chemical reactions.
    • Molecule: Two or more atoms bound together.
    • Cell: Basic structural and functional unit of an organism.
    • Tissue: Group of cells working together for a specific function.
    • Organ: Structure composed of 22 or more tissues with specific function and shape.
    • System: Group of related organs with a common function.
    • Organism: Any living individual.

  • Checkpoint 4 (Exercise Physiology Study Levels):

    • Exercise physiologists examine the body primarily at the chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system, and organismal levels (specifically cellular, tissue, organ, systemic, and pathophysiological changes from muscular activity).

  • Checkpoint 5 (Waste Elimination Systems):

    • Integumentary system (eliminates sweat/wastes).
    • Respiratory system (eliminates CO2CO_2).
    • Digestive system (eliminates solid wastes).
    • Urinary system (eliminates urine/nitrogenous wastes like urea and ammonia).

  • Checkpoint 6 (Six Life Processes):

    • Metabolism, Responsiveness, Movement, Growth, Differentiation, Reproduction.

  • Checkpoint 7 (Fluid Locations):

    • Intracellular fluid (ICF): Inside cells.
    • Extracellular fluid (ECF): Outside cells.
    • Interstitial fluid: Between cells of tissues.
    • Blood plasma: Inside blood vessels.

  • Checkpoint 8 (Internal Environment Context):

    • Extracellular fluid is termed the internal environment because it directly bathes and surrounds all body cells, exchanging essential materials with them.

  • Checkpoint 9 (Feedback Stimuli):

    • External physical insults (heat, low oxygen), internal shifts (low blood sugar), and psychological stress.

  • Checkpoint 10 (Feedback Component Definitions):

    • Receptor: Structure monitoring controlled condition and sending afferent input.
    • Control Center: Structure setting set point, evaluating input, sending efferent output.
    • Effector: Structure receiving output and producing response altering controlled condition.

  • Checkpoint 11 (Symptoms vs. Signs):

    • Symptoms: Subjective changes experienced by patient (e.g., headache, nausea).
    • Signs: Objective changes observed/measured by clinician (e.g., fever, rash, elevated blood pressure).

  • Structural Organization Figure Question:

    • The level composed of 22 or more different tissue types working together is the Organ level.

  • Nutrient Transfer Figure Question:

    • A nutrient moves from external environment →\rightarrow ingested/broken down in digestive system →\rightarrow absorbed into blood plasma (cardiovascular system) →\rightarrow crosses capillary wall into interstitial fluid →\rightarrow taken up by body cell.

  • Feedback System Comparison Figure Question:

    • Negative feedback reverses the directional change of a controlled condition; positive feedback reinforces/amplifies the directional change.

  • Blood Pressure Decrease Scenario Question:

    • If blood pressure drops, receptors detect it and signal brain, which increases heart rate and constricts blood vessels to raise blood pressure back to normal via negative feedback.

  • Positive Feedback Termination Mechanism Question:

    • Positive feedback systems must have an external termination mechanism because continuous reinforcement would produce extreme, runaway instability that could be fatal.