Imperialism Debates and the Spanish-American War

Topic 7.2: Imperialism: Debates

Overview

  • William Jennings Bryan (December 13, 1898): Argued against U.S. imperialism, stating that it contradicts the principles of government and morality.

  • Learning Objective: Explore U.S. attitudes toward its role in the world and the debates over imperialism.

U.S. Foreign Policy Evolution

  • After the 1790s, U.S. foreign policy focused on:

    • Westward expansion.

    • Protecting U.S. interests abroad.

    • Limiting foreign influences in the Americas.

  • Post-Civil War, U.S. interest shifted to:

    • Overseas trade.

    • Establishing bases and territories in the Caribbean and Pacific.

  • By the 1890s, the debate intensified over imperialism vs. anti-colonial traditions.

Expansion After the Civil War

William H. Seward

  • Role: Secretary of State under Lincoln and Johnson (1861-1869).

  • Significant Contributions:

    • Prevented British and French intervention in the Civil War.

    • Advocated for expansion, including:

    • Annexation of Midway Island.

    • Canal construction rights in Nicaragua.

    • Purchase of Alaska.

  • Failures: Attempted annexation of Hawaii; acquiring Danish West Indies did not succeed.

Purchase of Alaska

  • Background: Russia used Alaska for seal hunting but found it economically burdensome due to British threats.

  • Seward's Advocacy: Promoted U.S. purchase as a strategic and economic opportunity.

  • Outcome: Congress agreed to purchase in 1867 for $7.2 million but was initially criticized as "Seward's Folly".

Hawaiian Islands

  • Settlements: American missionaries and entrepreneurs began settling in Hawaii in the mid-1800s.

  • Strategic Importance: Interest in Pearl Harbor for its strategic location.

  • Treaty of 1875: Gave U.S. exclusive rights to Hawaiian sugar.

  • Overthrow of the Monarchy: In 1893, American settlers supported the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani for annexation, faced opposition from President Cleveland who valued anti-imperialism.

The Era of "New Imperialism"

Overview

  • Increased global competition among industrial nations for control of territories.

  • U.S. emphasis on achieving expansion through economic and diplomatic means rather than military force.

Economic Interests

  • Growing industries sought foreign markets and raw materials, leading many, including Republican politicians, to favor imperialism.

  • Farmers also sought markets abroad for surplus agricultural goods.

Political and Military Power

  • Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan: Advocated for a strong navy to secure foreign markets in his book "The Influence of Sea Power Upon History" (1890).

  • U.S. naval power burgeoned, becoming the third largest by 1900.

Social Fears

  • Post-Panic of 1893 economic instability increased social tension and the allure of overseas adventures as a solution.

Darwinism and Religion

  • Manifest Destiny: Expansionism linked to the idea of American superiority and a sense of duty to spread Christianity and civilization as articulated by Reverend Josiah Strong in his book "Our Country" (1885).

Popular Press

  • Sensational journalism (yellow journalism) heightened public interest in overseas expansion through exciting stories.

Opposition to Imperialism

  • Key Arguments Against Imperialism:

    • Belief in self-determination and moral responsibility to allow self-governance.

    • Rejection of racial theories supporting white supremacy and dominion over other peoples.

    • Isolationism aligned with George Washington's advice to steer clear of foreign affairs.

    • Economic concerns regarding the costs of expansive military and territorial control.

Latin American Policy

  • Monroe Doctrine (1820s): Positioned the U.S. as a protector of Latin America against European intervention.

  • James G. Blaine's Role: Facilitated closer ties within the Western Hemisphere.

Pan-American Diplomacy

  • First Pan-American Conference (1889): Promoted cooperation among Western Hemisphere nations, established the Pan-American Union.

  • Venezuela Boundary Dispute (1895-1896): U.S. intervention based on the Monroe Doctrine revealed a shift towards a more assertive foreign policy.

Growing Conflict Over Imperialism

  • The opposing views of anti-colonial traditions versus economic imperialism became particularly contentious.

Learning Objective Reflective Questions

  1. Differences between American Imperialists and Anti-Imperialists:

    • Imperialists advocated for expansion to enhance U.S. global power while anti-imperialists championed self-governance and liberty.

Key Terms Defined by Theme

  • Overseas Involvement: Without military force, emphasizing economic and diplomatic measures to extend U.S. influence.

  • Key Individuals: William H. Seward, Queen Liliuokalani, James G. Blaine.

  • Concepts: Monroe Doctrine, Manifest Destiny, Darwinism in international relations.

Topic 7.3: The Spanish-American War and U.S. Foreign Policy to 1917

Overview

  • Albert Beveridge (April 27, 1898): Advocated for new markets and territories, reflecting prevalent imperialist sentiment.

  • Learning Objective: Adjust understanding of causes and effects of the Spanish-American War on U.S. foreign policy.

Spanish-American War Overview

  • Early imperialism focused on Caribbean territories like Cuba due to American investments and geopolitical interests.

  • The war was fueled by various factors:

    • Jingoism and economic interests urged aggressive military policy.

    • Moral concerns for humanitarian intervention.

Key Causes of the War

  1. Cuban Revolt: Nationalists fought Spanish rule, leading Spain to employ severe measures against civilians, stirring outrage in the U.S.

  2. Yellow Journalism: Sensationalist journalism exaggerated Spanish atrocities, stirring public fervor for intervention.

  3. De Lôme Letter (1898): A critical letter by the Spanish minister insulted President McKinley, inflaming public anger.

  4. Sinking of the USS Maine: The explosion of the battleship killed 260 Americans, provoking nationalistic calls for war despite later evidence suggesting it was likely an accident.

  5. McKinley's War Message: Provided justification for war highlighting humanitarian needs, protection of U.S. citizens, and national interests.

  6. Teller Amendment: Congressional resolution asserting no intention to occupy Cuba, asserting Cuban self-governance post-war.

Conflict and Military Engagement

  • Dominance displayed in the Philippines, leading to "a splendid little war" as described by Secretary Hay.

  • Main events included:

    • Commodore Dewey's rapid victory in Manila Bay.

    • Rough Riders' charge at San Juan Hill in Cuba.

  • Outcomes included:

    • Treaty of Paris (December 10, 1898) recognizing Cuban independence and transferring Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the U.S. for $20 million.

The Philippine Question

  • Controversy erupted over the annexation of the Philippines due to implications for governance, race, and imperialism, with anti-imperialists arguing it contradicted American values.

  • The decision to ratify the Treaty of Paris narrowly passed in the Senate with significant public and congressional opposition.

  • Filipino insurrection followed after annexation, leading to significant casualties on both sides.

Insular Cases

  • Supreme Court rulings clarified that constitutional rights did not automatically extend to U.S. territories, allowing Congress to decide territorial governance.

Cuba and the Platt Amendment (1901)

  • Following U.S. military intervention, the Platt Amendment restricted Cuba's ability to engage in foreign treaties and granted the U.S. authority to intervene in Cuba's affairs, effectively making it a protectorate.

Presidential Elections and Shifts in Policy

  • Election of 1900: McKinley defeated Bryan, affirming approval of imperialist policies and foreign engagements.

  • During this period, U.S. territories expanded significantly across the Caribbean and Pacific, cementing the U.S. as an emerging power.

Consequences of the War

  1. Recognition of U.S. Power: The war elevated U.S. international status and fueled national pride post-war.

  2. Open Door Policy in China: John Hay’s initiative promoted equal trading rights amidst European colonization efforts.

  3. Boxer Rebellion (1900): The U.S. joined an international coalition to suppress anti-foreigner violence, maintaining influence in China.

Roosevelt's Policies

  • Defined by aggressive assertiveness, known as the "Big Stick" policy, aimed at demonstrating U.S. power globally.

  • Significant events under Roosevelt included:

    • Negotiating the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty to facilitate the Panama Canal's construction.

    • Supporting Panamanian independence to secure construction rights.

Military Interventions and Dollar Diplomacy

  • Roosevelt continued using military force in Latin America under the Roosevelt Corollary to stabilize countries and protect U.S. interests, leading to numerous interventions.

  • Taft's Dollar Diplomacy: Focused on economic ties rather than military, promoting American investments abroad.

Woodrow Wilson's Moral Diplomacy

  • Wilson emphasized democracy and human rights in foreign policy while also using military interventions in Latin America and the Caribbean to uphold U.S. interests.

Reflections and Debate

  • Ensure students are able to articulate both the support for imperialism through economic, military, and moral justifications, and the opposition rooted in anti-colonial sentiment and bigotry.

Key Terms by Theme

  • Spanish-American War: (WOR, PCE)

  • Jingoism and Cuban Revolt: Shifts in public sentiment facilitating war.

  • Teller Amendment & Platt Amendment: Policies outlining American involvement in Cuban sovereignty.

  • Open Door Policy & Boxer Rebellion: U.S. efforts to maintain access and influence in China.