Adams and Jefferson 10

Washington retired in 1797, choosing not to serve more than eight years as leader. Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, a Republican, and John Adams, a Federalist, competed for his position, with Adams winning a close election. However, Adams led a divided administration, facing significant international challenges. France, upset about Jay's treaty with Britain, started seizing American ships, capturing 300 by 1797 and breaking diplomatic ties. Adams sent commissioners to negotiate, but French agents demanded a loan and bribes before talks could begin, raising American anger, known as the XYZ Affair. This led to military enlistment and a strengthened U. S. Navy.

In 1799, with war looming after several battles, Adams chose to negotiate instead of following Hamilton's call for war. Napoleon, now in power, responded positively, reducing tensions with the Convention of 1800, which ended the 1778 defense alliance with France. However, France refused to compensate the U. S. for seized ships. In response to hostility towards France, Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, which impacted civil liberties. The Naturalization Act increased citizenship requirements, targeting Irish and French immigrants. The Alien Act allowed the president to expel or imprison aliens during war, while the Sedition Act restricted negative speech against the government, leading to few convictions that stirred support for civil liberties.

Jefferson and Madison challenged these acts through the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, advocating for states’ rights and nullification. By 1800, the American people sought change after Federalist policies alienated many. Jefferson's appeal to farmers and workers helped him secure a contested electoral victory. He advocated for a simpler government and reduced military spending. His administration also implemented a liberal naturalization law and, by the end of his second term, reduced the national debt. Popular among the public, he won reelection easily.