Grade 9 History: The Cold War and the Nuclear Age Study Age of Nuclear Conflict

The Yalta and Potsdam Conferences and the Division of Post-War Europe

The Cold War began to take shape through the tensions between the USA, Russia (USSR), and Great Britain during the final stages of World War II. At the Yalta Conference held in February $1945$, the Allied powers, consisting of the USA, Russia, France, and Great Britain, defeated Germany and subsequently decided to divide the nation into four distinct zones of occupation. This meeting marked the beginning of increasing friction between the Allies as they sought to settle the future of the continent.

Following the end of the war, the Potsdam Conference took place from July $17$ to August $2$, $1945$. The leaders of the USA, Britain, and Russia met to decide how to punish Germany and share its administrative sections. During this time, the USSR occupied Eastern Europe and refused to withdraw Russian troops from these countries. The Soviet Union justified this occupation as a defensive measure against future attacks, noting that they had lost the most men during the war. During this conference, new leaders emerged: Clement Atlee replaced the previous British leadership and expressed deep distrust toward Russia, while President Truman took over in the USA following the death of Roosevelt. Truman harbored a significant distrust of Stalin, which was exacerbated when the USA created the atomic bomb and did not inform their Russian allies, causing a sharp increase in tension.

Ideological Conflicts: Communism vs. Capitalism

The Cold War was fundamentally a battle between two competing ideologies: Communism and Capitalism. The Soviet Union (USSR), or the Union of Soviet Socialist States of Russia, adopted Communism following the Russian Revolution in World War I. Communism was led by Lenin, who gained support by offering the poor "Land, Peace and Bread." After Lenin, Joseph Stalin took over as a ruthless dictator who led Russia into World War II. The Communist ideology posits that a few rich individuals should not control the nation's wealth. It argues that the government should rule in the interests of the majority, wealth must be shared equally, and the economy should be centrally planned to ensure equality. Under this system, there is no private land or profit, as the government owns all industry and resources.

In contrast, the USA represented Capitalism. The Capitalist ideology maintains that there is nothing inherently wrong with wealth disparity, where some are rich and others are poor. It emphasizes democracy and an economy that is not controlled by the government. In a Capitalist system, businesses are owned by individuals. Because each country feared the other was trying to spread its own opposing ideas globally, they resisted one another, marking the start of the Cold War.

The Manhattan Project and the Atomic Age

The technological foundation for the late-war period was heavily influenced by Albert Einstein, a world-renowned scientist who fled Germany because he was Jewish. In $1939$, the top-secret Manhattan Project began with the goal of creating "the gadget," an atomic weapon capable of producing heat so intense it could turn sand into glass. The project culminated in the use of nuclear weapons against Japan to force a surrender, as Japan had refused to stop fighting until the bombs were dropped.

The USA dropped atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths. This event changed the nature of warfare forever and signaled the start of the nuclear age. The primary reason provided for dropping the bomb was to avoid more casualties; experts estimated that if the war had continued, $250\,000$ more people would die per month. Additionally, the bomb served a psychological purpose by demonstrating American military strength to the world and keeping Stalin in check. Evidence for the expected casualty rates is found in the fact that $120\,000$ Purple Heart medals were still left over in $2003$, indicating the high number of deaths the US military had anticipated before Japan surrendered.

Evaluating the Justification of the Atomic Bomb

Determining if the use of the atomic bomb was justified remains a central historical debate based on various sources. Source L supports the bomb, arguing that it prevented the deaths and suffering of thousands of servicemen. Source M and Source N also support the use of the bomb, stating it ended the war and saved lives. Source O supports the decision by highlighting the poor treatment of the Chinese by the Japanese, claiming that ill individuals were killed under Japanese occupation. Conversely, Source P provides an argument against the bomb through an eyewitness account of a woman who went blind and whose skin fell off, emphasizing the horrific negative human impact. Ultimately, the destruction of the Japanese nation led them to realize they had to stop fighting.

Cold War Dynamics: Hot War vs. Cold War and the Arms Race

In $1942$, Hitler invaded the USSR, causing Russia to join the war alongside Capitalist nations. However, once the war ended, the rivalry between the Capitalist USA and the Communist USSR developed into a global struggle. Because both superpowers possessed nuclear weapons, fighting a direct "hot war" was considered too dangerous to the survival of the planet. Instead, they engaged in a "Cold War," which was fought through indirect means like political influence and competition rather than direct military confrontation in Europe.

The nuclear arms race was a central feature of this rivalry. Both governments believed that more nuclear weapons equaled more power. This led to the policy of MAD (Mutual Assured Destruction), where the threat of total annihilation prevented direct conflict. In $1952$, the USA exploded the H-bomb, a weapon smaller in size but $2500 \times$ more powerful than previous bombs. The Russians produced their own H-bomb in $1953$, significantly increasing the danger of the global situation.

Global Conflict Zones and the Space Race

The Cold War manifested in specific areas of conflict, most notably in Cuba. Originally, Cuba was ruled by the pro-American dictator Baptista, but a Communist revolution led by Fidel Castro involved the majority of the poor population. The USA attempted to intervene via the Bay of Pigs invasion by sending exiles to retake the island, but the mission failed. Fearing another attack, Castro agreed to Russian military assistance. This led to the Cuban Missile Crisis, as Russia needed a base for missiles to reach the USA, counteracting US missiles in Turkey. After a US naval blockade prevented ships from entering Cuba, both superpowers eventually agreed to remove their respective missile bases.

Parallel to military tensions was the Space Race, which began in $1957$ when the USSR sent the first satellite, Sputnik, into space. The USA was shocked by Soviet advancement and felt inferior. In response, they sent a dog into space in $1957$. The USSR achieved another milestone in $1961$ by sending the first astronaut into space. To win the Space Race and prove technological superiority, the USA vowed to reach the moon, a goal achieved in $1969$ when Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first men to step onto the lunar surface.

The Division of Berlin and the End of the Cold War

The division of Germany was finalized with the USA, Britain, and France occupying West Germany while the Soviets occupied the East. West Germany combined the economies of the three Western sectors. In the East, the Soviets imposed Communism. Between $1946$ and $1961$, approximately $3$ million people fled from the East to the West. Berlin, the capital located in the East, was also divided. In $1961$, the USSR blocked East Berliners from moving to the West by building the Berlin Wall. Many people were killed attempting to defect to the West.

The Cold War eventually drew to a close after five decades. In $1985$, Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of the USSR and sought to fix a declining Russian economy. He introduced two major policies: Perestroika (restructuring the economy) and Glasnost (a policy of openness). These changes allowed for new freedoms, including freedom of speech, which inspired other Eastern Soviet states to demand change. In $1990$, the Berlin Wall collapsed as people flocked to cross the border, leading to the unification of Germany. By $1989$, US President Bush and Gorbachev declared the Cold War over. Gorbachev's systems ultimately failed, leading to the end of the Communist government and the fall of the Soviet Union.

Questions & Discussion

Use the sources to determine if the use of the bomb was justified in WW2? The discussion involves checking Source L, M, N, O, and P to weigh the saving of lives against the humanitarian disaster caused by radiation and heat. What was the cold war and how was this war fought? This topic is addressed by looking at the lack of direct military confrontation between the superpowers and the focus on spreading power through alternate means like the Arms Race and Space Race.