AP Human Geography

AP Human Geography Study Guide — Transcription

1. Maps

Purpose

  1. Tool for storing reference material

  2. Tool for communicating

Attributes

1. Scale

Definition: A comparison of distances on a map to distances on Earth.

Types of scale:

  • Graphic scale — scale bar

  • Verbal scale — written statement

  • Fractional scale — representative fraction

Large scale: Less area in greater detail (zoomed in)

Small scale: More area would be shown in less detail (zoomed out)

2. Projection

Definition: Method to represent Earth's curved surface on a flat map.

All distort one of 4 map properties:

  1. Shape

  2. Area size

  3. Distance

  4. Direction

Types of Projections

Robinson

Name: Robinson (oval/elliptical)

Preserves: Curvature of globe

Distorts: High latitudes (D, D, S, A) [the notes appear to abbreviate different map properties]

Uses: Best job of representing spatial relationships

Goode's

Name: Goode's — interrupted

Preserves: Size of areas

Distorts: Proximity relationships (D, D, S)

Uses: [Handwriting appears to say something like] "Increases lobes, decreases distortion"

Mercator

Name: Mercator

Preserves: Lat. and long.

Distorts: Farther distance from equator, REALLY high latitudes

Uses: Ship's captains

Azimuthal

Name: Azimuthal — Polar projection

Preserves: Correct distance

Distorts: Only see one hemisphere

Uses: Airline pilots

Types of Maps

1. Mental

Definition: Image about an area developed by an individual on the basis of information or impressions.

2. Reference

[No handwritten definition is filled in.]

3. Thematic

Definition: Map that is portraying some point of data about an area.

Types of thematic maps

Isoline

Description: Continuous lines joining pts of same value

Choropleth map

Description: Shows level of data with color and shading

Proportional map

Description: Use symbol to show intensity of frequency

Scale of Analysis

What is scale?

  • Scale is the relationship of the size of the map to the amount of area it covers.

Scale of analysis

  • Scale of analysis is the level at which data is displayed.

  • It is important for you to identify the scale of analysis in different ways.

  • Global, regional, national, or local

  • The way to be successful here is by identifying how the data is grouped/presented.

Examples of Scale of Analysis

Global Scale of Analysis

  • The world at one level of data

  • This level of analysis is not that useful and is almost impossible to [read/understand — unclear]

  • Example: Climate change

Regional Scale of Analysis

  • Shows data by continent/world regions

  • Example: map above divides data groups by continent

  • Consider regions like:

    • Southeast Asia

    • Sub-Saharan Africa

    • Oceania

    • Anglo-America

National Scale of Analysis

  • National scale shows data for one or more countries

  • Example: map above shows data by countries that [shows] that the US has an extremely high GDP per capita

Local Scale of Analysis

  • Local scale shows data at sub-national level

  • Example: States within US, could be counties or zip codes

Example of Scale of Analysis

Source A

Cereal yield, 2018

Question: What is the scale of analysis of the data?

Answer: Regional

How do you know?
It shows us the data by regions.

Source B

Cereal yield, 2018

Question: What is the scale of analysis of the data?

Answer: National

How do you know?
Data is broken down by state (national level).

Bottom left map

Question: What is the scale of analysis of the data?

Answer: National

How do you know?
See state borders shown all over and you have [bars/data] and shading different for every state.

Bottom right map

Question: What is the scale of analysis of the data?

Answer: National (sub-national)

How do you know?
Mine zoomed in but data is shown on a country to [country?] basis. [Some of this handwriting is unclear.]

Regions

Definition

Earth's areas that display significant elements of internal uniformity and external difference from surrounding area.

Purpose

To make infinitely varying world understandable, to organize and group areas for analysis/comparison.

Characteristics

  1. Location → Ex: N. Africa, Near East

  2. Spatial extent → define territories which have internal sets of features

  3. Boundaries

  4. Hierarchy arranged — no one [thing] stands as a key to understanding

Types of Regions

I. Formal

Definition: Has essential uniformity in one or limited combination of physical and cultural characteristics.

II. Functional

Definition: A node or central point; all other points are connected to it by interactions or the movement of people, goods, or ideas.

Examples:

  • City + suburbs

  • News + followers

III. Perceptual

Definition: Mental map divisions; reflect feelings, and impressions of the individual.

Core, Domain, and Sphere of a Region

Core of a region

Center/heart, possesses all traits of the region, focus of region

Domain of a region

Area in which traits of region are dominant but minority traits exist

Sphere of a region

Zone of outer influence, traits are present but not necessarily dominant

Cultural Ecology

Definition: The study of human-environment relationships

Environmental Determinism — 19th century

  • Humans' actions were scientifically caused by environmental conditions

Possibilism — today

  • Reject environmental determinism

  • Physical environment may limit some human actions, but people have the ability to adjust to their environment.

  • People can choose

Examples of Human Impact on Environment

  • Polders

  • Terrace farming → digging into hillsides

  • Cutting down trees to build places

  • Polders are used to channel water out with windmills to stop flooding

Diffusion

Definition

The spread of a phenomenon over space and through time.

Hearth

The point of origin for a trait.

Expansion vs. Relocation Diffusion

Expansion Diffusion

Definition: Trait spreads by passing from one person to another via some form of communication.

Example: How is a trait entered a pool of people? How it spreads.

Relocation Diffusion

Definition: Trait spreads as people move, bringing it with them; short or long scale movement.

Example: Bringing a trait or disease or etc. with you when you move.

3 Types of Expansion Diffusion

1. Contagious

  • Rapid and wide spread

  • Places near point of origin affected first

  • Affects essentially all individuals in its path

Examples:

  • Sickness

  • Trends/viral things

2. Hierarchical

  • A trait that starts at the top, then works its way down from power to power or level to level

  • People leave info until it reaches your hierarchy

Examples:

  • Fashion/products

  • Info for school closer or decisions

3. Stimulus

  • When an idea spreads but not the actual trait.

Examples:

  • Agricultural revolution

  • Social media — sharing something about yourself online but not actually you

S-Curve

Definition: Diffusion occurs as a function of time.

Diffusion occurs on a 3-step pattern that we can [measure] and track.

Innovators

People who created or shared it.

Majority adopters

Many people take on the trait or idea; highest point of spreading (exponential growth).

Laggards

Rate of adoption of the trait tapers off; dies down and growth slows down.

Maladaptive Diffusion

Definition: Diffusion when things spread that are not successful and/or appropriate in the new setting.

(New location or environment doesn't work.)

Examples:
Agriculture planting and etc.

Barriers

Definition: Things that limit and/or stop the spread of something.

Examples

  • Political limitations

  • Competition to speed, cost

  • Social

  • Social spread

  • Environment, oceans/mountains/desert

Independent Invention

Definition: Traits arise in different places with no contact or diffusion.

Example:
Feudal system during medieval Europe → also occurs in Japan

Time-Distance Decay

Definition: The further you get from origin point, or longer time that has passed since start of the trait, the less likely you are to see that trait.

Distance Decay

Definition: The further away a group is from another, the less likely they will be to interact.

Note: Bigger issue in the past; nowadays we have planes.

Friction of Distance

Definition: Goods and people/services will be hindered the farther they get from a point of origin.

Spatial Interaction

Definition: Interaction between places

  • Stressing interdependence between geographical areas and movement between them

Accessibility

How easily a place can be reached

Factors:

  • Time

  • Cost

  • Topography

  • Culture

  • Social class

Connectivity

Ways places are connected

Examples:

  • Phone lines

  • TV

  • Street

  • Distance decay

Networks

Chains of connections that connect places

Examples:

  • Highway networks

  • Internet

Space-Time Compression

Definition: Reduction in the time it takes for something to reach another place.

Examples:

  • 2-day shipping on Prime

  • DoorDash