Postmodernist Theories of Crime and Deviance

Postmodernism emerged in the 1970s and 1980s as a challenge to modernist perspectives like Marxism and functionalism.
Modernists believed in societal improvement through science and sociological knowledge.
Postmodernists argue that there are multiple versions of truth, none superior to others.
Government and lawmaker views on crime are not inherently better, even if more influential.
Imposing these views restricts self-expression.
Postmodernists reject overarching theories (e.g., functionalism, Marxism) as oversimplifications of social life.
However, postmodernism itself is sometimes criticized as another metanarrative.

Social harm is a more useful concept for analyzing crime.
Two forms of harm:
- Harms of repression: Restrictions on personal development by those in power (e.g., government actions, hate crimes, sexual abuse).
- Harms of reduction: Loss or injury to an individual (e.g., violence, theft).
Strength: Explains seemingly pointless crimes like hate crime or vandalism by focusing on the meaning for the actor.
Weakness: Difficult to research crime using a definition not accepted by official statistics organizations (e.g., ONS).
Redefining crime to include "harm" lacks effective limits and could lead to an unmanageable number of cases.

Strength: Recognizes the role of social and cultural factors in shaping definitions of crime and deviance.
Explains why behaviors are acceptable in some societies but not others.
Weakness: May downplay individual agency and responsibility.
Focuses on social/cultural factors but may neglect individual choices and motivations.

Lyng (1980) argues that young people's participation in crime is a form of edgework.
Edgework: voluntary social or physical risk-taking involving risk, fear, excitement, and control.
People may participate in extreme sports to experience proximity to death.
Strength: Recognizes identity's role in shaping criminal/deviant behavior.
Explains why certain behaviors are common in specific groups or social contexts.
Weakness: May neglect biological and psychological factors.
Social/cultural factors are important, but individual differences also influence behavior.

Postmodernists believe that the media creates our reality.
Media requires detailed analysis due to:
- Setting the discourse: Defining crime through media experiences, not personal ones.
- Intertextuality: Blurring the line between reality and fiction.
Baudrillard (1981): Consumerism has replaced reality with a media-generated world; the media's "theft of reality" is the "perfect crime."
Beck (1992): The media fuels fears creating a "global risk society."
- Media creates "hate" figures (e.g., migrants) leading to hate crime and social unrest.
Strength: Recognizes increasing interconnectedness and new types of risks in modern societies.
Explains how events globally impact people and communities.
Weakness: May overemphasize global risks and neglect other factors influencing well-being.
May also neglect local and national responses to global risks.

Foucault (1991): Contemporary society increases control and monitoring (e.g., surveillance cameras, loyalty cards).
Private companies and security guards replace police/prison services.
Panopticon: Centralized power allows few to control many.
Control is achieved through building design and social organization, not direct orders.
Constant observation and classification enforce conformity.
Fragmented society leads to private security firms.
Small communities may use their own forms of law and justice (e.g. vigilantes).
Examples:
- Superhero Film
- Westernized Muslim communities using traditional Sharia Laws.
- Jewish people in Britain using Beth din religious courts.

De Haan (1990): Punishing offenders harms them and society; victims are left without justice.
Redistributive justice (now "restorative justice") addresses victim-offender relationships.
Meetings may occur for victims to explain the consequences to offenders and for offenders to explain their reasons.
Used in prisons, schools, and workplaces.

Katz (1988): Crime is seductive and rewarding.
Criminals seek sensual experiences of the crime itself, not just material rewards.
Deviance often serves practical purposes.
Strength: Recognizes individual motivations and desires in shaping behavior.
Explains why some seek thrills or meaning through crime.
Weakness: May downplay structural factors like social inequality and power dynamics.
May neglect broader social/cultural forces.

Philo and Miller (2000): Postmodernism can provide freedom to behave immorally due to relativism.
Crime is more than disrespecting lifestyles; it impacts individual lives.
Criticisms:
- Difficult to test empirically; little postmodern research exists.
- Conflict theories (Marxism, feminism) argue it inadequately explains wealth inequalities (capitalism) and power dynamics (patriarchy).
Largely theoretical with insights but lacking strong evidence.