Basic Communication Information: History, Forms, Models, Contexts, and Competence
Introduction to Communication Studies
Foundational Questions of Communication:
How did humans develop the ability to communicate?
Are humans the only creatures on earth that communicate?
What purpose does communication serve in our lives?
Answers to these historical, anthropological, and social-scientific questions form the diverse body of knowledge in communication studies (Simonson, Peck, Craig, & Jackson, Jr., 2013).
Historical Origins:
The formal origins of communication studies trace back thousands of years to ancient Greek philosophers and teachers, such as Plato and Aristotle, who were the first to systematically study and write about speech.
Core Areas of Study:
Communication studies extends far beyond public speaking.
Basic communication processes include nonverbal communication, perception, and listening.
Communication contexts include interpersonal, group, intercultural, and media communication (Hawes, 1973).
History of Communication Studies
Defining Communication:
Definition: Communication is the process of generating meaning by sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple contexts (Hawes, 1973).
Over published definitions of communication have been created since its systematic study began in colleges and universities a little over years ago (Dance & Larson, 1976).
Ancient Rhetoric and Citizenship:
Aristotle: His writings on communication are the most complete and systematic among ancient scholars.
Rhetoric Defined: Ancient Greek philosophers theorized rhetoric as the art of speaking well and persuasively (Swearingen, 2013).
Misconceptions of Rhetoric: Modern usage often uses "rhetoric" negatively (e.g., a politician dismissing an opponent's statement as "just rhetoric"), implying misleading or unethical speech. However, ancient and contemporary experts view rhetoric as persuasive communication that emphasizes being an ethical rhetor (communicator). Dishonest or vague speech represents unethical speaking rather than rhetoric.
Focus of Ancient Rhetoric: Public communication, specifically oratory used in legal proceedings, policy/law debates, and speeches intended to praise or blame (Griffin, Ledbetter, & Sparks, 2019).
Civic Connection: Communication and citizenship have been deeply linked since the inception of the field, establishing ongoing connections among communication, ethics, and civic engagement.
Roman Oratory and the Five Canons of Rhetoric:
Roman orators like Cicero expanded on Greek rhetoric by developing the Five Canons of Rhetoric (Griffin, Ledbetter, & Sparks, 2019):
Invention: The use of evidence and arguments to think about things in new ways. This is the most studied of the five canons.
Arrangement: The organization and structure of a speech.
Style: The specific use of language and literary choices.
Delivery: The vocal and physical characteristics of the speaker.
Memory: Techniques employed by ancient speakers to retain and repeat large amounts of information. This is the least studied canon.
Modern Expansion of Communication:
James A. Winans: One of the first modern speech teachers, he identified two primary motives for learning to speak: "Increasing one's chance to succeed and increasing one's power to serve" (Keith, 2008).
Social Psychology Integration: As social psychology grew in academia, speech communication scholars expanded definitions of communication to include social and psychological contexts.
Breadth of Communication (Case Study: U.S. Presidency):
Traditional Rhetoric: Comparative analysis of presidential speeches.
Debate Analysis: Dissecting rhetorical strategies in presidential debates.
Media Channels: Examining how media outlets cover presidential politics.
Interpersonal Level: Studying political conflict within families composed of liberal and conservative individuals.
Cultural Level: Analyzing how the election of an African American president generates a narrative of post-racial politics.
Five Major Forms of Communication
Overview:
Forms of communication vary across participants, channels used, and context.
The five primary forms are intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass communication.
Intrapersonal Communication:
Definition: Communication with oneself using internal vocalization or reflective thinking (Vocate, 1994).
Triggers: Triggered by internal stimuli (e.g., thinking about what to eat due to hunger) or external stimuli (e.g., reacting internally to an observed event).
Distinctive Feature: Takes place entirely inside an individual's head. Unlike all other forms of communication, it does not require perception by another person.
Interpersonal Communication:
Definition: Communication between people whose lives mutually influence one another (Hartley, 1999).
Significance: Builds, maintains, and ends relationships; constitutes the form of communication in which people spend the most time.
Subfields: Intercultural communication, organizational communication, health communication, and computer-mediated communication.
Characteristics: Can be planned or unplanned. Because it is interactive, it is more structured and governed by social expectations than intrapersonal communication.
Needs Met:
Instrumental Needs: Achieving short-term or long-term practical goals, ranging from daily morning greetings to expressing a desire for a committed relationship.
Relational Needs: Communicating the uniqueness of a specific relationship.
Conflict: Because it directly impacts personal relationships, miscommunication and conflict occur most frequently in interpersonal communication (Dance & Larson, 1972). Competence requires conflict management and listening skills.
Group Communication:
Definition: Communication among three or more people interacting to achieve a shared goal (Powell, 1996).
Characteristics: More intentional and formal than interpersonal communication. Positions in a group are often assigned rather than voluntary.
Task Focus: Group members work together for an explicit purpose or goal that impacts each member.
Interpersonal vs. Group Goals: Interpersonal goal-oriented communication typically targets one individual (e.g., asking a friend to help move), whereas group goal-oriented communication focuses on a shared task assigned to the whole group (e.g., planning a company office relocation).
Challenges: Managing task-oriented logistics (deciding task distribution) and interpersonal misunderstandings/conflicts that arise among group members.
Public Communication:
Definition: A sender-focused form of communication in which one person is typically responsible for conveying information to an audience (Beebe & Beebe, 2021).
Characteristics: The most consistently intentional, formal, and goal-oriented form among intrapersonal, interpersonal, and group communication.
Public Speaking Anxiety: Common anxiety stems from high formality and heavy focus on the single sender.
Connection to Daily Interactions: Public speaking shares similarities with daily conversation because speakers are face-to-face with the audience, allowing real-time reception of verbal and nonverbal feedback (Beebe & Beebe, 2021).
Mass Communication:
Definition: Public communication transmitted to many people through print or electronic media (Bryant & Miron, 2004).
Channels: Traditional print media (newspapers, magazines) and electronic/digital media (television, websites, blogs, social media, radio, podcasts, books).
Distinguishing Factor: Requires technology to send messages, which separates mass communication from other forms (Bryant & Miron, 2004).
Intentionality and Formality: Requires intentional steps to transmit (e.g., pressing "Enter" or utilizing a full TV production crew). However, sender goals vary: a State of the Union address is formal and intentional, while a president's verbal gaffe during an interview is unintentional.
Models of the Communication Process
Purpose of Models:
Communication is complex, making it difficult to determine exact starting and ending points (Simonson, Peck, Craig, & Jackson, Jr., 2013).
Models simplify the process by offering a visual representation of a communication encounter (Narula, 2006).
Models allow scholars and students to define concepts, analyze specific steps, and deliberately prepare for or reflect on encounters.
Common Communication Elements:
Participants: The senders and/or receivers of messages in an encounter.
Message: The verbal or nonverbal content conveyed from sender to receiver (e.g., saying "Hello!").
Encoding: The cognitive process of turning internal thoughts into communication (Hall, 1980).
Decoding: The cognitive process of turning received communication back into thoughts to construct meaning (Hall, 1980).
Channel: The sensory route on which a message travels to the receiver. Includes visual (sight), auditory (sound), tactile (touch), olfactory (smell), and gustatory (taste) routes. Most communication relies on visual and auditory channels.
Transmission Model of Communication
Core Concept: Describes communication as a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver (Ellis & McClintock, 1990).
Focus: Sender- and message-focused. The receiver is treated as a target or end point rather than an active participant in an ongoing exchange.
Historical Origins: Expands on Aristotle's linear model (speaker, message, hearer) and was influenced by mid-20th-century technologies like telegraphy and radio (Shannon & Weaver, 1949).
Example: Radio broadcasting. A radio announcer (sender) encodes a verbal message, transmitted by a tower via electromagnetic waves (channel) to a car antenna/speaker, reaching the listener's ears (receiver) for decoding.
Responsibility: Burden of effective transmission rests on the sender.
Concept of Noise: Noise is anything that interferes with a message being sent and decoded (Shannon, 1984).
Environmental Noise: Physical noise in the environment (e.g., background talking in a crowded diner).
Semantic Noise: Noise during encoding and decoding when participants do not understand a symbol (e.g., FM antennae unable to decode AM signals; French speakers unable to decode Swedish; unfamiliar jargon; mobile autocorrect errors/abbreviations in text messages).
Modern Application: Computer-mediated communication (CMC), particularly text messaging, where senders transmit messages without immediate verification of receipt or accurate decoding (McMurdo, 1995).
Interaction Model of Communication
Core Concept: Describes communication as a process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, generating meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts (Schramm, 1997).
Key Features:
Interactive Two-Way Process: Incorporates a feedback loop (messages sent in response to previous messages, such as an instructor answering a question or pointing to a remote control).
Sender-Receivers: Participants alternate roles as sender and receiver rapidly and often unconsciously.
Process-Focused: Focuses on the overall interaction rather than single message delivery (Lindblom, 1990). Acknowledges that multiple messages (some unintentional) are sent at once and may not all be received.
Contextual Dimensions:
Physical Context: Environmental variables such as size, layout, temperature, and lighting of a space (e.g., how room setting impacts a job interview).
Psychological Context: Mental and emotional factors including stress, anxiety, or love (Gallois, 1994). For instance, early romantic infatuation can prevent individuals from recognizing incompatible traits.
Transaction Model of Communication
Core Concept: Describes communication as a process in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts (Barnlund, 1970, 2013).
Constructing Reality: Communication is not merely used to exchange messages; it constructs realities, forms relationships, creates intercultural alliances, shapes self-concepts, and builds communities.
Simultaneous Communicators: Participants are termed communicators rather than separate senders and receivers. Communicators send and receive messages simultaneously (e.g., speaking on a first date while simultaneously decoding the partner's real-time nonverbal feedback to adapt speech mid-sentence).
Contextual Dimensions:
Social Context: Stated rules and unstated norms guiding communication.
Rules: Stated guidelines with explicit punishments for violations (e.g., "don't lie," "don't interrupt," "don't cut in line").
Norms: Conventions learned through observation, practice, and trial/error. Violations cause social awkwardness rather than formal punishment (e.g., over- or under-dressing for a holiday party). Norms can override rules (e.g., telling a lie to spare someone's feelings; interrupting a close friend during an exciting conversation).
Relational Context: Previous interpersonal history and relationship type (Vangelisti & Crumley, 1998).
History: Initial interactions are highly scripted by general rules/norms; established relationships allow rules/norms to be bent or broken (e.g., cleaning meticulously for new neighbors vs. casual interaction with long-term friends).
Type: Specific expectations exist for supervisor-supervisee relationships versus sibling relationships.
Cultural Context: Identities including race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, social class, and ability (Chen, 2014).
Historically marginalized individuals are often highly conscious of how cultural identities shape communication exchanges.
Dominant/majority group members may rarely reflect on the influence of their cultural identities.
Two Dimensions of Every Message: Content and Relationship
Dual-Level Operation: Every message functions on two distinct levels (Adler, 2017; Adler & Proctor, 2017):
Content Dimension: The actual subject matter or literal meaning of the message.
Relational Dimension: Expresses feelings toward the other participant, indicating liking/disliking, control/subordination, comfort/anxiety (Adler, 2017).
Comparative Example:
Statement A: "I'm busy tonight" (spoken in an annoyed tone).
Statement B: "Sorry babe, I'm busy tonight" (spoken in an apologetic tone).
Analysis: Both statements possess identical content dimensions, but convey contrasting relational dimensions.
Culture, Context, and Ethical Communication
Cultural Values in Communication Models:
Western cultures (e.g., the United States) prioritize senders over receivers and content over context, reflecting an individualistic cultural orientation focused on personal expression and success (Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey, 1988).
Eastern cultures (e.g., Japan) possess a collectivistic cultural orientation, emphasizing group cohesion, harmony, nonverbal context, and silence (Gudykunst & Ting-Toomey, 1988).
Learned and Symbolic Nature of Communication:
Communication is learned rather than innate.
Symbolic Communication: Words do not directly correspond to physical reality; they stand in for or symbolize objects/ideas.
Example: The French word poisson and the English word fish look entirely different, yet symbolize the exact same physical object. Meaning is assigned and negotiated by human systems, not inherent in words.
Communication Ethics:
Definition: Negotiating and reflecting on actions and communication regarding right and wrong. Focuses on practical decisions rather than abstract theoretical systems.
Aristotle's Ethical Principle: Focuses on action: "In the arena of human life the honors and rewards fall to those who show their good qualities in action" (Pearson, Child, Mattern, & Kahl, 2006). Communicators should act "to the right extent, at the right time, with the right motive, and in the right way."
Applications: Ethical listening, avoiding plagiarism, presenting evidence ethically, and applying moral standards to mass and social media.
Communication Competence
Definition: The knowledge of effective and appropriate communication patterns and the ability to use and adapt that knowledge in various contexts (Cooley & Roach, 1984).
Components of Competence:
Cognitive Elements (Knowledge): Knowing how to communicate and understanding why things are done a certain way (Hargie, 2011). Developed via observation, evaluation, and explicit instruction.
Behavioral Elements (Ability to Use): Translating knowledge into physical performance. Individual physiological/psychological factors (such as public speaking anxiety) can hinder performance.
Contextual Adaptation (Ability to Adapt): Adapting to social and cultural contexts.
Social Factors: Power dynamics and status influence standards (e.g., supervisors setting competence standards for employees).
Cultural Factors: Cultural perceptions shape evaluation (e.g., a Taiwanese speaker praised for English proficiency in Taiwan, but judged as less competent in the U.S. due to an accent).
National Communication Association (NCA) College Graduate Competencies:
The NCA established essential speaking and listening competencies for college graduates (Morreale, Rubin, & Jones, 1998):
State ideas clearly.
Communicate ethically.
Recognize when it is appropriate to communicate.
Identify their communication goals.
Select the most appropriate and effective medium for communicating.
Demonstrate credibility.
Identify and manage misunderstandings.
Manage conflict.
Be open-minded about another's point of view.
Listen attentively.
Developing Competence and Mindful Communication:
Requires knowledge, motivation, and practical skills.
Mindful Communicator: An individual who actively and fluidly processes information, maintains sensitivity to communication contexts and multiple perspectives, and adapts to novel situations (Burgoon, Berger, & Waldron, 2000).
Benefits: Aids goal achievement, deception detection, stereotype avoidance, and conflict reduction.
Mindful Behaviors: Asking a listener to paraphrase instructions demonstrates awareness of potential listening gaps, message ambiguity, or fear of asking questions.
Unmindful Behaviors: Stonewalling/withdrawing from a partner or exhibiting passive-aggressive behavior during conflict leads to predictable, destructive conflict cycles.
Final Exam Study Guide Review Questions
1. Explain the differences between the three models of communication:
Transmission Model: Linear, one-way, sender-focused process where a message is sent through a channel to a receiver subject to noise.
Interaction Model: Two-way, interactive process incorporating a feedback loop, physical/psychological contexts, and alternating sender-receiver roles.
Transaction Model: Simultaneous process where communicators co-create social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts.
2. Define the basic communication elements contained in the communication models:
Participants: Senders, receivers, or communicators.
Message: Verbal or nonverbal content.
Encoding: Converting thoughts to communication.
Decoding: Converting communication to thoughts.
Channel: Sensory path (visual, auditory, tactile, etc.) used to convey messages.
Noise: Environmental or semantic interference.
Feedback: Responses sent back during an interaction.
3. Explain the two dimensions of every message:
Content Dimension: Literal meaning/information transmitted.
Relational Dimension: Messages indicating feelings, status, power, or connection between participants.
4. Define communication competence:
The knowledge of effective and appropriate communication patterns and the ability to use and adapt that knowledge in various contexts.
5. List the characteristics of an ethical communicator:
Acts to the right extent, at the right time, with the right motive, and in the right way; practices ethical listening; avoids plagiarism; presents evidence honestly; and adapts ethically to mass/social media environments.
11. Explain how culture influences communication:
Culture dictates whether communication values sender dominance and individual achievement (individualistic) or group harmony and context/silence (collectivistic). Culture also socializes individuals into symbolic language systems and communication norms.