02+Pre-College+Biology+Powerpoint+Slides_Day+1_Ch+1+and+3-4

Chapter 1: The Human Body

  • Anatomic Terms
    • Opposites used to locate body areas:
    • Superior (Above) vs Inferior (Below)
    • Anterior/Ventral (Front of body) vs Posterior/Dorsal (Back of body)
    • Medial (Middle) vs Lateral (Away from the midline)
    • Proximal (Closest to the origin) vs Distal (Farthest from the origin)
    • Superficial (Close to surface) vs Deep (Away from the surface)
  • Body Reference Planes
    • Four primary planes in the body:
    • Median sagittal plane (also called midsagittal or median plane)
    • Frontal plane (also called coronal plane)
    • Transverse plane (also called horizontal plane)
    • Oblique plane
    • Note: Terms include details like sagittal (mid-sagittal), frontal, etc., used to describe sections and orientations.
  • Body Cavities
    • Dorsal cavity:
    • Cranial cavity (skull; brain)
    • Vertebral (spinal) cavity (vertebrae; spinal cord)
    • Ventral cavity:
    • Thoracic cavity (includes pleural cavities for lungs and mediastinum for heart)
    • Abdominopelvic cavity (abdominal cavity with stomach and other organs; pelvic cavity with bladder, rectum, reproductive organs)
  • Other Cavities
    • Nasal cavity
    • Orbital cavity (eyes)
    • Middle ear cavity
    • Synovial cavities (joints)
  • Body Regions
    • The body is divided into sections to localize organs, nerves, and blood vessels with specific functions
  • The Cell
    • The cell is the basic unit of life
    • Simple cells reproduce quickly; more complex cells reproduce less efficiently and have shorter lifespans
  • Protoplasm
    • Protoplasm = water component of the cell containing important ions and organic compounds
    • Nucleoplasm: liquid portion within the nucleus
    • Cytoplasm: liquid portion within the cell; organelles suspended here
    • Mostly water but contains other substances needed by the cell
    • Many chemical reactions take place in the cytoplasm
  • Cell Structure
    • All living organisms are made of one or more cells
    • Typical cell has numerous membrane-bound organelles
    • Organelles are specialized structures that perform specific functions
  • Cell Organelles
    • Cell Membrane
    • Flexible double-layered membrane surrounding the cell
    • Supports the cell and controls entry/exit of substances (example: oxygen and water can enter; proteins cannot freely pass)
    • Semi-permeable membrane
    • Nucleus
    • Contains genetic information that controls all cell activities
    • Genetic information stored in chromosomes
    • Made of tightly coiled DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
    • Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion)
    • Generate energy for the cell (power plant)
    • Contain enzymes that convert glucose into energy via cellular respiration
    • Active cells (e.g., muscle cells) contain many mitochondria
    • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
    • Folded membrane forming canals to transport materials (e.g., proteins) within the cell
    • Rough ER has ribosomes on its surface; Smooth ER lacks ribosomes
    • Ribosomes
    • Small round organelles involved in protein manufacture
    • Golgi Bodies
    • Look like a flattened stack of pancakes
    • Collect and process materials to be removed from the cell or shipped to other parts of the cell
    • Vacuole
    • Sac enclosed by a single membrane containing fluid
    • Functions vary: stores water, wastes, maintains pressure
    • Lysosomes
    • Digest waste and break down ingested food (phagocytosis)
  • DNA and RNA
    • DNA = Deoxyribonucleic acid; basis of genetic material and instructions
    • RNA = Ribonucleic acid; required for protein synthesis
    • DNA bases: A, G, T, C
    • Base pairing in DNA: C pairs with G; A pairs with T
    • RNA uses A, G, C, U; A pairs with U in RNA; G pairs with C
  • Purines and Pyrimidines
    • Purines: double-ring structures (A and G)
    • Pyrimidines: single-ring structures (T, U, and C)
    • In DNA: A pairs with T; G pairs with C
    • In RNA: A pairs with U; G pairs with C
  • Cell Reproduction
    • Cells must copy all components before making a complete copy
    • DNA replication is the starting point
    • Mitosis: division of somatic (body) cells
    • Meiosis: production of gamete cells (reproduction)
  • Cell Division
    • Mitosis: 4 stages — Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
    • Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm; results in two daughter cells
  • Interphase
    • DNA replication occurs during interphase (preparation for cell division)
  • A Sister Chromatids and Centromere
    • Sister chromatids: identical copies held together at the centromere
    • Centromere: region where sister chromatids are held together
  • Prophase (Mitosis, Stage 1)
    • DNA condenses to chromosomes
    • Nuclear membrane dissolves
    • Centrioles move to cell poles; spindle fibers form
  • Metaphase (Mitosis, Stage 2)
    • Chromosomes align along the center of the cell
    • Spindle fibers attach to centromeres
    • Nuclear membrane is absent
  • Anaphase (Mitosis, Stage 3)
    • Spindle fibers shorten and pull sister chromatids apart
    • Chromatids are pulled to opposite poles (now chromosomes)
  • Telophase (Mitosis, Stage 4)
    • Chromosomes arrive at poles and uncoil into thin strands
    • Nuclear membrane reforms around chromosomes
  • Cytokinesis
    • Cytoplasm and organelles divide
    • Cytoplasm pinches inward, yielding two identical daughter cells
  • Meiosis
    • Produces gametes; gametes are haploid (n) with one copy of each chromosome
    • Male gamete: spermatozoa; Female gamete: ova
    • Fertilization forms a zygote that develops into an embryo; embryo grows via mitosis and cell division
    • Meiosis I: homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis) and crossing over occurs
    • Results in two homologous chromosomes exchanging DNA segments
    • Produces two haploid daughter nuclei (with single chromosomes) and increases genetic variation
    • Meiosis II: separation of sister chromatids into four haploid cells
    • Four haploid cells produced; some are parental and some recombinant
  • Cellular Energy Generation
    • ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the main cellular energy source
    • Chemistry principle: forming bonds stores energy; breaking bonds releases energy
  • How ATP works
    • ATP (triphosphate) is converted to ADP (diphosphate) when a terminal phosphate is released, releasing energy
    • General representation: ATP→ADP+Pi+energy\mathrm{ATP} \rightarrow \mathrm{ADP} + \mathrm{P_i} + \text{energy}
  • Movement within Cells
    • Methods for moving particles around the body:
    • Diffusion
    • Osmosis
    • Active Transport
    • Endocytosis
    • Filtration
  • Diffusion
    • Particles move from high concentration to low concentration
    • High concentration → balanced concentration → low concentration
  • Osmosis
    • Movement of water molecules across a membrane from lower solute concentration to higher solute concentration
    • Related to dissolved solute levels
  • Active Transport
    • Pumps ions against their concentration gradient using energy (ATP)
  • Endocytosis
    • Phagocytosis: taking in larger substances (e.g., bacteria)
    • Pinocytosis: taking in fluids and solutes
  • Filtration
    • Movement of particles across a membrane due to pressure
  • Types of Human Tissues
    • Muscle Tissue: in skeletal muscles and heart; for movement
    • Epithelial Tissue: in skin; for protection
    • Nervous Tissue: in brain and nerves; for sensing and communication
    • Connective Tissue: in bone, blood, tendons; for support
  • Epithelial Tissue Types
    • Endothelium (spelled as Endothelium in some sources): lines heart, lymphatic, and blood vessels
    • Glandular Epithelium: cells that produce secretions
    • Endocrine Glands: secretions released into blood or lymph
    • Exocrine Glands: secretions released into ducts that release secretions inside
    • Mixed Glands: can produce both endocrine and exocrine secretions
  • Connective Tissue
    • Supports form of the body; includes bones, cartilage, and adipose tissue
    • Loose (Areolar) connective tissue: large spaces between cells
    • Dense Regular connective tissue: tightly packed; includes ligaments, tendons, aponeuroses
    • Dense Irregular connective tissue: tightly packed but not in a regular pattern
    • Adipose tissue: a type of loose connective tissue; cells contain fat droplets
  • Muscle Tissue
    • Muscle cells are long and contractile
    • Striated muscle tissue: voluntary (skeletal) — e.g., biceps
    • Cardiac muscle tissue: heart; involuntary
    • Smooth muscle tissue: involuntary; walls of hollow organs
  • Nervous Tissue
    • Nerves transmit information throughout the body (communication)
    • Nervous tissue is reactive to stimuli (irritability)

Chapter 3: Chemical Organization

  • Principles of Chemistry
    • The human body is composed of chemicals, matter, and energy
    • Matter: anything that takes up space and has mass
    • Energy: the capacity to do work; can be chemical, electrical, or radiant
    • Potential energy: stored energy
    • Kinetic energy: energy of motion
  • Elements
    • Periodic table shows the smallest units of matter
    • Atom: the smallest unit of matter; defines an element
    • Element: a substance consisting of atoms with the same type of subatomic particles
  • Atom
    • Atoms share a common structure: protons, neutrons, electrons
    • Atomic mass: sum of protons and neutrons
    • Protons + Neutrons = Atomic Mass
  • Atomic Structure
    • Nucleus: dense, positively charged core
    • Planetary model: electrons orbit the nucleus like planets around the sun
    • Atomic number (Z): number of protons in the nucleus
    • In neutral atoms, protons = electrons
    • Periodic table organization by atomic number
    • Key particles and charges:
    • Proton: p+, positive, located in the nucleus
    • Neutron: n0, neutral, located in the nucleus
    • Electron: e−, negative, located in orbit around the nucleus
  • Metals and Non-Metals
    • Metals: conductors, typically solid at room temperature; generally malleable
    • Non-metals: varied states (solid, liquid, gas); often poor conductors
    • Example: Ni (Nickel) is a metal; Br (Bromine) is a non-metal in some contexts; metallic vs non-metallic properties across the table
    • The table is described as metals on the right and non-metals on the left in this material (note: this is a simplified/alternate depiction)
  • Isotopes
    • Isotopes are alternate forms of an element with different numbers of neutrons
    • Hydrogen has three isotopes commonly cited (e.g., protium, deuterium, tritium)
  • Electrons and Shells
    • Electrons orbit the nucleus in regions called electron shells
    • Each shell has a maximum number of electrons it can hold
  • Molecules & Compounds
    • Molecule: two or more atoms bonded together (often non-metals sharing electrons)
    • Compound: combination of elements where electrons are transferred (usually a metal and a non-metal)
  • Chemical Bonds
    • Hydrogen bonds: weak bonds formed when hydrogen bonds to O, F, or N
    • Ionic bonds: transfer of electrons between metal and non-metal; forms cations and anions
    • Covalent bonds: sharing of electrons between non-metals
  • Chemical Reactions
    • Synthesis reactions: two or more reactants combine to form a new product
    • Example: 2H<em>2(g)+O</em>2(g)→2H2O(l)2\mathrm{H<em>2(g)} + \mathrm{O</em>2(g)} \rightarrow 2\mathrm{H_2O(l)}
    • Decomposition reactions: a compound breaks down into simpler compounds or elements
    • Example: 2H<em>2O(l)→2H</em>2(g)+2O2(g)2\mathrm{H<em>2O(l)} \rightarrow 2\mathrm{H</em>2(g)} + 2\mathrm{O_2(g)}
    • Exchange (double displacement) reactions: parts of two compounds swap partners
    • Example: HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2O\mathrm{HCl} + \mathrm{NaOH} \rightarrow \mathrm{NaCl} + \mathrm{H_2O}
    • Reversible reactions: reactants ⇄ products; can revert back and forth
    • Example: N<em>2+3H</em>2⇌2NH3\mathrm{N<em>2} + 3\mathrm{H</em>2} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{2NH_3}
  • Inorganic Compounds
    • Small compounds, including Water
    • Water properties:
    • Forms polar covalent bonds
    • Lubricant in body fluids and mucus
    • Needed for chemical reactions
    • Maintains body temperature
  • Electrolytes
    • Three types:
    • Acids: ionize into H+ and anions
    • Bases: ionize into OH− and cations
    • Salts: products of acid-base reactions