Comprehensive Study Guide for Business Communication and Design Thinking

Foundations and Definitions of Communication

• Definition of Communication: McLean (2005) defines communication as a dynamic process where a small number of people engage in a conversation. It can also be defined broadly as the process of understanding and sharing meaning (Pearson & Nelson, 2000).
• Communication as a Discipline: Communication is considered an activity, skill, and art that incorporates lessons learned across a wide spectrum of human knowledge.
• Basic Elements: Written communication involves the same $8$ basic elements as oral communication. These include source, receiver, message, channel, feedback, environment, context, and interference.
• Models of Communication: The two primary models of communication include the transactional process and the constructivist model.
• The Channel: This is the way in which a message or messages travel between the source and the receiver.
• Feedback: This is composed of the messages the receiver sends back to the source.
• Context: The context refers to the structure through which communication is formulated and interpreted, involving the setting, scene, and expectations of the individuals involved.
• Environment: An example of environment in a written application is: "Heather is at her desk when she receives Jay's e-mail."
• Effective Communication Requirements: Successful communication requires preparation, practice, and persistence.
• Ethical Responsibilities: A business communicator must be ethical, which means being egalitarian, respectful, and trustworthy while practicing the "Golden Rule."
• Preparation Responsibilities: Being prepared as a communicator includes being organized, clear, concise, and punctual.

Intrapersonal Communication and Self-Concept

• Intrapersonal Communication: This involves communication with one's self and may include self-talk, acts of imagination, visualization, recall, and memory (McLean, S., 2005).
• Self-Concept: Defined as one's own sense of individuality, personal characteristics, motivations, and actions. It is our sense of self and awareness of who we are.
• Self-Reflection: This is a trait that allows humans to adapt and change to their environment, accept or reject messages, and examine their concept of themselves to choose improvement.
• Internal Monologue: This refers to the self-talk occurring during intrapersonal communication.
• Self-Image: This is how you see yourself or would describe yourself to others.
• Self-Esteem: This refers to how you feel about yourself, including feelings of self-worth, self-acceptance, and self-respect.
• Social Comparisons: According to Leon Festinger (1954), we engage in social comparisons when we evaluate ourselves in relation to our peers of similar status, characteristics, or qualities.
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: This is the concept where someone's behavior comes to match and mirror the expectations others have of them.
• Physical Characteristics: These include traits such as eye color, hair length, and height.

Interpersonal Communication and Schutz's Needs

• Interpersonal Communication: This normally involves two people and can range from intimate and personal to formal and impersonal.
• Interpersonal Intelligence: This includes the ability to understand other people and their motivations.
• Schutz’s Three Interpersonal Needs (1966):
  • Need for Affection: A person who strikes a healthy balance here is a "personal individual." Those who crave attention and must be liked are "overpersonals"; those who seek limited interaction are "underpersonals."
  • Need for Control: Individuals who shift the burden of responsibility to others for a sense of control are called "abdicrats." Those who share the need between the individual and the group are "democrats."
  • Need for Belonging/Inclusion: People who crave the spotlight and seek belonging are "oversocials." Those who prefer smaller groups and avoid center stage are "undersocials."

Group Communication and Meetings

• Group Communication Definition: Involves a small number of people, generally defined as involving $3$ to $8$ people.
• Meeting Definition: Group communication in action around a defined agenda, at a set time, for an established duration.
• Effective Meeting Strategies:
  • Communicate respect and appreciation for everyone's effort.
  • Start and end meetings on time.
  • Clearly communicate the time, date, and location for the next meeting.
  • Ensure notes are legible and can be converted to minutes for later distribution.
  • Provide participants with roles and requirements prior to the meeting.
  • Note: Waiting for all participants to arrive before starting is NOT an effective strategy.

Intercultural Communication and Globalization

• Intercultural Business Communication: Communication within and between businesses involving people from more than one culture.
• Business Globalization: Defined by Ritzer (2003) as the spread of ways of life across the world both socially and in business.
• Grobalization: Focuses on the imperialistic ambitions of nations and corporations to impose themselves on geographic areas (Ritzer, 2003).
• Glocalization: The interpenetration of the global and the local, resulting in unique outcomes in different geographic areas (Robertson, 2001).
• Acculturation: The process of adjusting and adapting to a new and different culture (Hazuda, Stern, & Hoffner, 1988).
• Enculturation: The socialization process one undergoes to adapt to their own society.
• Cultural Diffusion: The process by which two cultures learn, adapt materials, and adopt practices from each other.
• World Culture: The idea that as traditional barriers break down and human needs are emphasized, a new shared culture will emerge.
• Dimensions of Culture (Borden, 1991):
  • Physical Dimension: Relates to the reality of the environment and the cultural activities of people.
  • Psychological Dimension: Relates to knowledge, beliefs, and mental activities.
  • Language Dimension: Relates to communication systems.
• Intercultural Factors: Language skills, position, status, and appearance impact the success of intercultural encounters.

Cultural Traits, Values, and Mindsets

• Cultures: These are ways of being that allow us to see, perceive, and reason through our own cultural awareness.
• Individualistic Cultures: People value individual freedom and personal independence.
• Collectivistic Cultures: People value the family or community over the needs of the individual.
• Uncertainty-Rejecting Culture: In these cultures, people focus on rules for every circumstance and dislike ambiguity.
• Ethnocentrism: The belief that one's own cultural background is correct and superior to others (Seiler & Beall, 2000).
• Mindsets: These are ways of being through which we perceive and reason through our cultural awareness.
• Prejudice: Involves a negative preconceived judgment or opinion that guides conduct or behavior.
• Stereotypes: Generalizations about groups of people that oversimplify their culture; they can be a significant barrier to communication.
• Norms: Culturally ingrained principles of correct and incorrect behaviors that carry overt or covert penalties if broken.

International Etiquette and Protocol

• Protocol: Customs and regulations dealing with diplomatic etiquette and courtesies expected in official dealings.
• Business Attire: The general rule is to be "buttoned up" (Axtell, 1993), meaning a conservative suit and tie for men and a dress or skirted suit for women. People in suits are perceived as more professional.
• Business Cards:
  • In Japan or South Korea, cards should be presented with both hands.
  • In non-English speaking countries, print cards with English on one side and the local language on the other.
  • In some cultures, educational titles, degrees, and positions must be included.
  • In Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, avoid presenting cards with the left hand (reserved for bodily functions).
• Gift Giving:
  • China: Avoid clocks (symbol of bad luck) and all-white clothing (symbol of mourning).
  • Taiwan: Avoid red ink (death connotations).
  • India: Avoid gifts made of cowhide (the cow is sacred).
  • France: Avoid giving wine or perfume as they are French specialties.
  • Malaysia: Avoid the color yellow (reserved for royalty).
• Dining and Tipping: Tipping can offend in certain cultures. "Insult tipping" involves leaving a few coins, which shows a lack of respect.
• Small Talk (Chitchat): In the U.S., people engage in small talk first. In chitchat, if someone mentions their family, you should talk about yours. However, in Arab countries, it is taboo to ask specifically about a man’s wife.
• Travel Etiquette: Includes treating airline personnel with respect.
• Professionalism: Knowing which attire is customary in a country can enhance or destroy credibility.

Language and Verbal Communication

• Syntactic Rules: Govern the order of words in a sentence.
• Semantic Rules: Govern the meaning of words and how to interpret them (Martinich, 1996).
• Contextual Rules: Govern meaning and word choice according to context and social custom.
• Semantic Triangle: Includes Thought, Subject/Object, and Word.
• Connotative Meaning: Meaning often not found in the dictionary but in the community of users.
• Denotative Meaning: The common meaning often found in the dictionary.
• Language Styles:
  • Formal Language: Focuses on professional expression, protocol, and roles.
  • Casual Language: Involves everyday words in familiar group contexts (family/friends).
  • Colloquial Language: Informal, conversational style using slang and regional phrases.
• Problematic Language:
  • Bypassing: Misunderstanding occurring when a receiver misses the source's intended meaning.
  • Cliche: A once-clever word or phrase that lost impact through overuse.
  • Jargon: Occupation-specific language used by professionals.
  • Slang: Use of newly invented/existing words to take the place of standard words (informal/rebellious).
  • Euphemism: Substituting an acceptable word for an offensive or controversial one.
  • Doublespeak: Deliberate use of words to disguise, obscure, or change meaning.
  • Racist Language: Discriminates against members of a given race or ethnic group.
  • Sexist Language: Using gender as a discriminating factor (e.g., referring to women as "girls").
  • Libel: Written defamatory language harming someone's reputation.
  • Slander: Spoken defamatory language harming someone's reputation.

Perception and Listening

• Perception Process:
  • Selection: Sorting competing messages or choosing stimuli.
  • Organization: Sorting information into logical categories.
  • Interpretation: Subjecting information to internal evaluation.
• Stimuli Types:
  • Internal Stimuli: Arise from within (e.g., hunger).
  • External Stimuli: Stimulation from outside (e.g., the instructor's voice).
• Selective Attention: Focusing on one stimulus while tuning out others.
• Empathetic Listening: Listening to both literal and implied meanings within a message.
• Defensive Communication: Jack Gibb noted it is characterized by control, evaluation, and judgments. Supportive communication focuses on points rather than personalities.

Negative News and Crisis Communication

• Parts of a Negative News Message:
  1. Buffer or Cushion: Neutral or positive information to start.
  2. Explanation: Explains why the issue exists.
  3. Negative News: The bad news itself; clarity and accuracy are the focus.
  4. Redirect: Refocuses attention on a solution or alternative.
• Direct Approach: Places the negative news at the beginning.
• Indirect Approach: Places negative news between a buffer and a conclusion.
• Crisis Communication Plan: A prepared scenario document organizing responsibilities and lines of communication prior to an event. It includes team members, a designated spokesperson, and a media plan.
• Emergency Information Needs: During an emergency, key information includes: What is happening? Is anyone in danger? How big is the problem? Has a response started? What resources are on-scene?

Argumentation and Public Speaking

• Rhetorical Strategies (Pathos, Ethos, Logos):
  • Ethos: Credibility.
  • Logos: Logic of your thoughts.
  • Pathos: Passion and enthusiasm.
• Toulmin's Strategy:
  • Claim: Your statement of belief or truth.
  • Data: Supporting reasons for the claim.
  • Warrant: The connection between the claim and the data.
• GASCAP/T Strategy: In this framework, "G" stands for Generalization and "S" stands for Sign.
• Speech Types:
  • Speech to Inform: To increase audience knowledge or share expertise.
  • Speech to Demonstrate: To show the audience how to use or operate something.
  • Speech to Persuade: To change attitudes, beliefs, or values.
  • Speech to Entertain: To amuse the audience through a light-hearted goal.
• Sound Bites: Brief statements (zingers, quotes, or slogans) that capture the essence of a larger message.

Design Thinking Process

• Definition: A methodology for creative problem solving used in teaching and real-world projects.
• The 4Cs: Collaboration, creativity, critical thinking, and communication.
• Design Thinking Modes:
  • Empathize: The foundation; involves observing users, engaging through interviews, and immersing in the user’s experiences.
  • Define: Unpacking and synthesizing findings into needs and insights to scope a specific challenge.
  • Ideate: Focusing on idea generation and exploration.
  • Prototype: Getting ideas out of the head and into the physical world (making ideas real).
  • Test: Refining solutions and making them better; characterized by "Fail, fix, test, repeat."
• Empathy Map: Components include Hear, Think, See, Feel, Do, and Say.
• Stoke: A method used during the Ideate process.

Questions & Discussion

• Question: What type of question attempts to catch the speaker off guard?
• Answer: A "gotcha" question.
• Question: In Malaysia, pointing with the index finger is taboo. What should be used instead?
• Answer: The thumb.
• Question: How should one react if they receive negative news while reading?
• Answer: Don't interrupt; make an effort to understand and digest the news without mental interruptions.
• Question: Why should employees be careful about e-mail messages?
• Answer: A firm may be liable for information leaked into cyberspace.
• Question: What is the "S" in Fulkerson's (1996) GASCAP/T?
• Answer: Sign.