Ap psych
🧬 Topic 1.1 — Heredity & Environment
Psychology — The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Nature — Genetic influences on behavior and traits.
Nurture — Environmental influences and experiences.
Heredity — Traits passed from parents through genes.
Environment — Your surroundings and experiences that affect you.
Genes — Parts of DNA that influence traits.
Genome — All of an organism’s genetic material.
Interaction — Nature and nurture working together.
Evolutionary Perspective — Explains behavior based on survival and reproduction.
Natural Selection — Helpful traits become more common over generations.
Behavior Genetics — Studies how genes and environment affect behavior.
Mutations — Changes in DNA.
Epigenetics — Environmental factors can affect how genes are expressed.
Eugenics — An attempt to improve a population through selective reproduction.
Identical (Monozygotic) Twins — Twins from one fertilized egg with nearly identical DNA.
Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins — Twins from two eggs who are genetically like regular siblings.
Twin Studies — Compare twins to study genetic and environmental influences.
Family Studies — Compare family members to study genetic influences.
Adoption Studies — Compare adopted children with biological and adoptive families.
🧠 Topic 1.2 — Nervous System
Nervous System — The body’s communication system.
Central Nervous System (CNS) — The brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) — Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.
Nerves — Bundles of fibers that carry information.
Somatic Nervous System — Controls voluntary movement and receives sensory information.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) — Controls automatic body functions.
Sympathetic Nervous System — Activates the body for fight-or-flight.
Parasympathetic Nervous System — Calms the body for rest-and-digest.
Reflex — An automatic response to a stimulus.
⚡ Topic 1.3 — Neurons & Neural Firing
Neuron — A nerve cell that sends information.
Cell Body — Keeps the neuron alive and contains the nucleus.
Dendrites — Branches that receive messages from other neurons.
Axon — Carries messages away from the cell body.
Myelin — Fatty covering around the axon that speeds up messages.
Synapse — Tiny gap between neurons.
Glial Cells — Support, protect, and nourish neurons.
Sensory Neurons — Carry information from the senses toward the CNS.
Motor Neurons — Carry commands from the CNS to muscles.
Interneurons — Connect neurons within the CNS.
Reflex Arc — Neural pathway used for a quick automatic response.
Resting Potential — A neuron’s normal resting state.
Threshold — Minimum stimulation needed for a neuron to fire.
Action Potential — Electrical impulse traveling down the axon.
All-or-Nothing Principle — A neuron either fires completely or does not fire.
Depolarization — The neuron’s electrical charge changes as it fires.
Refractory Period — Short time when a neuron cannot fire again.
Reuptake — Neurotransmitters are taken back into the sending neuron.
Neurotransmitters — Chemicals that carry messages between neurons.
Excitatory Neurotransmitters — Increase the chance that a neuron will fire.
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters — Decrease the chance that a neuron will fire.
Dopamine — Involved in reward, motivation, movement, and learning.
Norepinephrine — Involved in alertness and arousal.
GABA — A major inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms neural activity.
Serotonin — Involved in mood, sleep, and appetite.
Glutamate — A major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory.
Endorphins — Reduce pain and can create feelings of pleasure.
Acetylcholine — Involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory.
Substance P — Involved in pain signals.
Endocrine System — Glands that release hormones into the bloodstream.
Hormones — Chemical messengers carried through the blood.
Adrenaline — Hormone involved in the fight-or-flight response.
Leptin — Hormone that signals fullness.
Ghrelin — Hormone that increases hunger.
Melatonin — Hormone that helps regulate sleep.
Oxytocin — Hormone involved in bonding and social behavior.
Multiple Sclerosis — Disease that damages myelin.
Myasthenia Gravis — Autoimmune disorder that interferes with muscle movement.
💊 Topic 1.3 — Psychoactive Drugs
Psychoactive Drugs — Substances that change mood, thoughts, or behavior.
Agonist — Increases or mimics a neurotransmitter’s effects.
Antagonist — Blocks or decreases a neurotransmitter’s effects.
Reuptake Inhibitor — Prevents neurotransmitters from being taken back up.
Stimulants — Drugs that increase nervous system activity.
Caffeine — A stimulant found in coffee, soda, and energy drinks.
Cocaine — A powerful stimulant that increases certain neurotransmitter effects.
Methamphetamines — Powerful stimulant drugs.
Ecstasy (MDMA) — Psychoactive drug that strongly affects serotonin and other systems.
Depressants — Drugs that slow nervous system activity.
Barbiturates — Depressants that slow brain activity.
Alcohol — A depressant that slows nervous system activity.
Opioids — Drugs that reduce pain and can produce euphoria.
Heroin — A highly addictive opioid.
Substance Use Disorder — Continued substance use despite harmful effects.
Addiction — Compulsive drug use despite negative consequences.
Tolerance — Needing more of a substance to get the same effect.
Withdrawal — Unpleasant effects after stopping a substance.
🧠 Topic 1.4 — Brain
Biological Psychology — Studies how biology affects behavior and mental processes.
Biopsychosocial Approach — Looks at biological, psychological, and social factors together.
Levels of Analysis — Different ways of examining behavior.
Brain Plasticity / Neuroplasticity — The brain’s ability to change and reorganize.
Lesions — Damaged or destroyed areas of the brain.
Brain Areas — Location + Function
Brain Stem — Bottom/base of the brain; controls basic survival functions.
Hindbrain — Lowest part of the brain; controls basic functions like movement and breathing.
Midbrain — Middle part of the brain; involved in movement, alertness, and sensory processing.
Forebrain — Upper/largest part of the brain; handles complex thinking and behavior.
Medulla Oblongata — Bottom of the brain stem; controls breathing and heartbeat.
Reticular Activating System / Reticular Formation — Brain stem; controls alertness and arousal.
Cerebellum — Back/bottom of the brain; controls balance, coordination, and movement.
Cerebral Cortex — Outer layer of the brain; handles higher thinking.
Limbic System — Deep inside the brain; involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.
Thalamus — Deep near the center of the brain; relays sensory information.
Hypothalamus — Below the thalamus; controls hunger, thirst, temperature, and other basic needs.
Pituitary Gland — Below the hypothalamus; releases hormones and controls other glands.
Hippocampus — Deep inside the temporal lobe; helps form new memories.
Amygdala — Deep inside the temporal lobe; involved in emotions, especially fear.
Corpus Callosum — Between the two brain hemispheres; connects the left and right sides.
Split Brain — A condition where the corpus callosum is cut or separated.
Broca’s Area — Usually in the left frontal lobe; controls speech production.
Wernicke’s Area — Usually in the left temporal lobe; helps understand language.
Aphasia — Difficulty with language caused by brain damage.
Cortex Specialization — Different areas of the cortex have different jobs.
Contralateral Hemispheric Organization— Each hemisphere generally controls the opposite side of the body.
Association Areas — Brain areas that combine information for complex thinking.
Occipital Lobe — Back of the brain; processes vision.
Temporal Lobe — Sides of the brain near the ears; hearing, language, and memory.
Parietal Lobe — Upper-middle part of the brain; processes touch and body sensations.
Frontal Lobe — Front of the brain; planning, decision-making, and movement.
Prefrontal Cortex — Front part of the frontal lobe; planning, judgment, and decision-making.
Motor Cortex — Back part of the frontal lobe; controls voluntary movement.
Somatosensory Cortex — Front part of the parietal lobe; processes touch and body sensations.
🔬 Brain Scans
EEG — Records the brain’s electrical activity.
MEG — Measures magnetic activity from the brain.
MRI — Produces detailed images of brain structure.
CT — Uses X-rays to create brain images.
PET — Shows brain activity using a radioactive tracer.
fMRI — Shows brain activity by tracking blood flow.
😴 Topic 1.5 — Consciousness & Sleep
Consciousness — Awareness of yourself and your surroundings.
Cognitive Neuroscience — Studies how brain activity relates to thinking.
Dual Processing — Information can be processed consciously and unconsciously at the same time.
Parallel Processing — Processing multiple pieces of information at once.
Sequential Processing — Processing information step-by-step.
Sleep — A recurring state of reduced awareness and activity.
Circadian Rhythm — The body’s roughly 24-hour biological cycle.
Jet Lag — Sleep disruption caused by traveling across time zones.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) — In the hypothalamus; helps control the circadian rhythm.
EEG Patterns — Brain-wave patterns measured during sleep.
Alpha Waves — Brain waves linked to being relaxed and awake.
NREM — Non-REM sleep.
Delta Waves — Slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.
REM — Sleep stage with rapid eye movements and vivid dreams.
REM Rebound — Increased REM sleep after being deprived of REM.
Hallucinations — Sensory experiences without an outside stimulus.
Hypnagogic Sensations — Vivid experiences while falling asleep.
Dream — A sequence of thoughts or images during sleep.
Activation-Synthesis Theory — Dreams happen as the brain tries to make sense of random neural activity.
Consolidation Theory — Sleep may help process and strengthen memories.
Memory Consolidation — The process of stabilizing and strengthening memories.
Insomnia — Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.
Narcolepsy — Sudden, uncontrollable episodes of sleep.
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder — Acting out dreams during REM sleep.
Sleep Apnea — Repeated pauses in breathing during sleep.
Somnambulism — Sleepwalking.
Hallucinogens — Drugs that cause altered perceptions.
Marijuana — Psychoactive drug that can affect perception, memory, and coordination.
LSD — A powerful hallucinogen.
Near-Death Experience — Unusual experiences reported by some people near death.