STS Notes: Science, Technology and Society

What is Science, Technology and Society?

• STS is the study of how social, political and cultural values affect scientific research and technological innovation, and how these in turn affect society, politics and culture.
• Science, Technology and Society are interlinked: science provides knowledge; technology applies that knowledge to solve problems; society shapes and is shaped by both.
• The course frame from the slides emphasizes understanding concepts, the scope of STS, and preparedness in studying STS.

The Essence of Science

• Science is not merely a list of equations or a catalog of facts; it is a way of thinking and a method to acquire knowledge.
• It seeks to unravel mysteries from the subatomic to the cosmic, and it is a dynamic process that evolves with accumulating knowledge.
• It encompasses many disciplines (physics, biology, psychology, astronomy, etc.).
• The essence lies in questions that drive exploration and inquiry as much as in answers.
• The systematic approach to modern science emerged during the Renaissance and Enlightenment, including the rise of the scientific method: observation, experimentation, hypothesis testing, and evidence-based conclusions.
• Science’s impact on society has grown exponentially; technological advancements have propelled science further in recent decades.

The Royal Society and Nullius in Verba

• The phrase on the slide: "Nullius in verba" translates to "on the word of no one" and is tied to the scientific method as a principle of evidence-based verification.
• The Royal Society motto embodies the commitment to verify statements by experiment and to withstand domination by authority when evidence contradicts claims.
• The idea: question authority and rely on empirical evidence.

Chapter 1: The Essence of Science (Key Points)

• Science is a method for acquiring knowledge about the natural world.
• It involves observation, experimentation, and exploration as means to knowledge.
• It is a dynamic and evolving process.
• Covers diverse disciplines and emphasizes asking questions as much as answering them.

Chapter 1: The Essence of Science – The Scientific Method

• The Scientific Method is a repeatable framework for investigating natural phenomena.
• Core steps often include: ask a question, do background research, construct a hypothesis, test with an experiment, analyze data, draw conclusions, report results.
• There are multiple versions of the method; all start from identifying a problem or question based on observations.
• The method emphasizes transparency and critique via peer review and publication to validate results.
• A common demonstration of scientific ethos is peer-review: anonymous critique by other scientists to weed out invalid methods or conclusions.

The Scientific Method: Process and Steps

• Basic sequence often taught:
  • Ask a question
  • Do background research
  • Construct a hypothesis
  • Test your hypothesis by doing an experiment
  • Analyze your data and draw a conclusion
  • Report your results (Was your hypothesis correct?)
• An additional emphasis: communicate findings through papers, presentations, or journals.
• A related model often taught:
  1) Observe/Ask
  2) Question
  3) Research the problem
  4) Develop hypothesis
  5) Experimentation or hypothesis testing
  6) Analyze data and draw a conclusion
  7) Communicate findings/conclusions
• Note: There is not a single universal sequence; variations exist, but all begin with identifying a problem through observation and questions.

Hypothesis: Definition and Format

• What is a hypothesis? An educated guess based on observations and knowledge of the topic.
• It is stated as a possible answer to a question.
• Common format: "If … , then … ." example: IF I water three plants with different sodas, THEN the plant that receives Sprite will grow the tallest.

Variables in Scientific Experiments

• A variable is anything that can change during an experiment.
• Independent Variable (IV): the factor that is deliberately changed/manipulated by the experimenter. $IV$
• Dependent Variable (DV): the factor that is measured/observed as a result of the manipulation. $DV$
• Controlled Variables (CV) or Constants: factors kept constant to ensure a fair test; everything except the IV should stay the same. $CV$
• Example: In a speed-reading study, the monetary incentive (Php 250) might be the IV; reading performance is the DV; a control group with no incentive is used to compare.
• Simple visualization:
  • IV → DV (causal link)
  • CVs kept constant

Independent, Dependent, and Controlled Variables (Definitions and Visuals)

• Independent Variable: the one thing you change in an experiment. $IV$
• Dependent Variable: what you measure in response to the IV. $DV$
• Controlled Variable: what you keep the same to ensure a fair test. $CV$
• Visualizing relation: IV (manipulated) causes DV (measured); CVs stay constant.

Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning in Science

• Inductive Reasoning (bottom-up):
  • Observation → Pattern → Tentative Hypothesis → Theory
• Deductive Reasoning (top-down):
  • Theory → Hypothesis → Observation → Confirmation
• Both are essential in scientific inquiry: use inductive reasoning to formulate theories and deductive reasoning to test them.

Technology: Definition, Etymology, and Role

• Definition: Technology is the application of scientific knowledge, laws, and principles to produce services, materials, tools, and machines aimed at solving real-world problems.
• Etymology: Comes from the Greek word "techne" meaning art, skill, or cunning of hand; technology is the application (doing) of science.
• Technology represents the human attempt to change the world by creating products that make life easier.
• Technology is the use or application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes.

What Defines a Technological Tool

• A technological tool augments human senses or abilities and makes them more powerful (e.g., glasses or contact lenses to improve vision).
• Tools are characterized by their ability to extend human capabilities to achieve practical goals.

Society: Definition and Its Relation to STS

• Society comes from the Latin word "socius" meaning a friendly association with others.
• It is a large group of people who live together in an organized way, making decisions and sharing work.
• In STS, society is the arena where science and technology are created, implemented, and evaluated, and where ethical, cultural, and political considerations come into play.

How Science, Technology, and Society Interact

• Science explores knowledge for understanding the natural world.
• Technology uses scientific knowledge to solve problems and improve life; it informs and demands more from science.
• Society uses and benefits from technology and science; it also drives demand for new knowledge and devices.
• A common way to summarize interactions:
  • Science explores for the purpose of KNOWING
  • Technology explores for the purpose of making USEFUL things
  • Society informs and demands more from both, seeking better living conditions
• The overarching dynamic is a cycle of seeking knowledge, applying it, and addressing societal needs and constraints.

The Nature of Science: Key Characteristics (Chapter 2)

• Science is a method for learning about the natural world.
• Knowledge is gained through observation, experimentation, and exploration.
• Attributes of science:
  • Empirical: based on observation and experience. $Empirical$
  • Objective: free from personal bias. $Objective$
  • Non-dogmatic: open to revision. $Non ext{-}dogmatic$
  • Self-correcting: willing to revise theories with new evidence. $Self ext{-}correcting$
  • Systematic: follows a structured method. $Systematic$
  • Transparent: methods and data are open for scrutiny. $Transparent$
• These attributes guide how science is conducted and evaluated.

The Process of Science: Basic vs Applied Science

• Basic Science: aims to gain knowledge for its own sake; understanding how the world works; often produces foundational theories (e.g., cell biology, DNA structure, inheritance, molecules).
• Applied Science: uses scientific knowledge to solve specific, practical problems and create technologies; examples include surgical techniques, windmills, solar panels, gene therapy.

The Scientific Method (A Working Overview)

• Steps often presented:
  • Ask a question
  • Do background research
  • Construct a hypothesis
  • Test your hypothesis by doing an experiment
  • Analyze your data and draw a conclusion
  • Report your results (Was your hypothesis correct?)
• A variant includes a separate step: communicate results and conclusions.
• Emphasizes transparency and critique through peer-review and publication.

The Scientific Method: A More Detailed View

• The method is a process used to find answers about the natural world.
• It is not a rigid formula; multiple versions exist with different numbers of steps, but all begin with problem identification via observation.
• Elements like observation, experimentation, data analysis, and communication are central across versions.

Hypothesis: Formulation and Examples

• A hypothesis is an educated guess based on observations and existing knowledge.
• It is stated as a possible answer to a question.
• Example format: IF [condition], THEN [expected outcome].
• Example: IF I water three plants with different sodas, THEN the plant that receives Sprite will grow the tallest.

The Role of Observation, Research, and Experimentation

• Observing or asking a question to state the problem.
• Researching the problem through reading, seeking advice, and making observations.
• Developing a hypothesis to predict outcomes.
• Planning and conducting experiments to test the hypothesis.
• Analyzing data and drawing conclusions.

- Communicating findings through reports or presentations.

Transparency and Peer Review in Scientific Work

• Scientific work is expected to be transparent and open to critique.
• New knowledge is vetted through peer-review and publication to ensure quality and reproducibility.
• Peer-review acts as a filter to remove invalid methods or conclusions.

Stepwise Example: Speed-Reading Study (Illustrative)

• Independent Variable (IV): Monetary incentive (e.g., Php 250) $IV$
• Dependent Variable (DV): Performance on reading test $DV$
• Controlled Variables (CV): Other factors kept constant (e.g., test duration, environment)
• Result: Compare performance with and without incentive to see if incentive affects outcomes.

Inductive vs Deductive Reasoning: A Quick recap

• Inductive Reasoning (bottom-up): Observation → Pattern → Tentative Hypothesis → Theory
• Deductive Reasoning (top-down): Theory → Hypothesis → Observation → Confirmation
• Use both: Inductive to generate theories; Deductive to test and verify them.

Summary: STS Relationships and Goals

• STS applies methods from history, philosophy, and sociology to study science and technology and to judge their value and place in society.
• STS emerged from questions about science-technology’s dynamic interactions with society.
• STS aims to bridge humanities and natural science to address moral, ethical, and existential dilemmas raised by science and technology.
• The overall goal is to understand how science, technology, and society influence each other and to guide responsible, ethical use of knowledge.

Interaction Models: How they influence each other in practice

• Science informs Technology (through discoveries and theories).
• Technology informs Society (through new tools, capabilities, and social changes).
• Society informs Science and Technology (through needs, ethics, policies, funding, and cultural values).
• The cycle: Science explores for knowledge → Technology uses knowledge to make life better → Society experiences impacts and demands more from science and tech.

Ethical, Philosophical, and Practical Implications (STS lens)

• Ethical questions about manipulation of nature, privacy, equity, and access to technology.
• Philosophical questions about the nature of knowledge, truth, and the role of human values in scientific practice.
• Practical implications include policy-making, regulation, education, and responsible innovation.

Final Takeaways (Chapter 1–2 Synthesis)

• Science is a thinking process with a method for understanding the natural world; it is empirical, objective, self-correcting, systematic, and transparent.
• Technology is the application of scientific knowledge to create tools and solutions that address real-world problems.
• Society is the context in which science and technology operate, shaping and being shaped by them.
• STS studies the interactions among science, technology, and society to evaluate value, ethics, and impact.
• The scientific method, while variable in steps, centers on asking questions, gathering evidence, testing hypotheses, and communicating findings, all under a framework that values critique and replication.