The Sixties

Disruption of American Life in the 1960s

• The 1960s marked a significant change in American life, altering the relative peace and prosperity experienced previously.

• The political scene shifted from Eisenhower to Nixon (Republican) and Kennedy (Democrat).

John F. Kennedy's Presidency

• Kennedy leveraged his personality effectively, overcoming challenges such as his youth and Catholicism, which contributed to his narrow victory over Nixon.

• Launched the "New Frontier" platform which included:

  • Tariff and tax cuts.

  • Domestic reforms aimed at enhancing social welfare.

• Kennedy's assassination in November 1963 had profound effects, symbolizing unfulfilled national aspirations and leading to conspiracy theories about the event's circumstances.

Lyndon Johnson and the Great Society

• After Kennedy's death, Lyndon Johnson capitalized on the emotional wave to push through his ambitious Great Society programs, particularly against Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater, who represented conservative ideologies.

• Johnson's reforms included:

  • Housing assistance for the impoverished.

  • Federal education aid.

  • Introduction of Medicare and Medicaid.

• Despite these efforts, there was a realization that expanding federal programs alone could not resolve systemic social issues.

Civil Rights Movement

• Racial justice was a critical struggle of the 1960s:

  • Kennedy was hesitant to fully support civil rights due to potential political consequences with southern Democrats.

  • Initiatives against discrimination were increasingly led by Northerners and expanded into Southern protests.

• Violent incidents (e.g., assassinations, church bombings) eventually pushed Kennedy to advocate for anti-discrimination laws, paving the way for:

  • Civil Rights Act of 1964

  • Voting Rights Act of 1965

Northern Civil Rights Focus and Movement Fragmentation

• The movement faced backlash in the South from segregationist leaders, including George Wallace.

• As the movement evolved, attention shifted north where de facto segregation existed in major cities.

• Two factions emerged:

  • Moderate groups advocating for collaboration with whites and pushing for Affirmative Action.

  • More radical groups like the Black Panthers, emphasizing cultural distinctiveness and pride for African Americans, opposed white assimilation.

International Relations and Cold War Tensions

• Under Kennedy, a more aggressive liberal approach defined U.S. foreign policy,

  • Increased military capability against perceived communist threats, especially in the Third World.

• Cuban Missile Crisis (1962):

  • Soviet nuclear sites discovered in Cuba led to tense standoffs between Kennedy and Soviet leader Khrushchev, narrowly avoiding nuclear war.

• Vietnam War:

  • Escalation began after the Gulf of Tonkin incident.

  • By the end of 1967, over 500,000 U.S. troops were deployed.

  • Various strategies, including pacification, were largely unsuccessful and resulted in disillusionment among Americans.

Political Divisions within the Democratic Party

• The war divided the Democratic Party into pro-war and anti-war factions, with figures like Robert Kennedy appealing to the anti-war sentiment.

• The assassinations of key figures, including Martin Luther King Jr., contributed to political instability.

• The 1968 Democratic National Convention faced turmoil over the party's direction concerning the Vietnam War.

Rise of Nixon and Conservative Backlash

• Nixon represented a desire for stability within the American electorate, winning the presidency in 1968 with a minority of the popular vote.

• A new youth cultural revolution emerged in California, marked by:

  • Anti-war protests.

  • Musical movements like Woodstock.

  • The Stonewall Riots, signifying the fight for LGBTQ+ rights.

Development of New Left and Feminism

• The New Left emerged challenging perceived societal banality and advocating for marginalized groups (Native Americans, Latinos, feminists, LGBTQ+ individuals).

• Feminism gained momentum, spearheaded by works like Betty Friedan’s "The Feminine Mystique",

  • Resulted in legislative changes like the Equal Pay Act and Title IX.

• By the end of the 1960s, the U.S. grappled with the push for social progress alongside the quest for unity within a diverse society.