Lecture 19: Immigration

Trends in Immigration Over Time

  • Data Overview: This section examines the trends in immigration to the United States since the 1860s. It references a chart that visually represents the number of foreign-born individuals in the U.S., tracked in millions (blue line), alongside the percentage of the total U.S. population that is foreign-born (gold line). These metrics help provide both an absolute and relative understanding of immigration trends.

  • Historical Trends:

    • Consistent Increase: From the mid-19th century to approximately 1930, there was a steady and significant increase in the number of immigrants entering the U.S., driven by industrial expansion and the promise of economic opportunity.

    • Notable Decrease (1930): A sharp decline in immigration occurred around 1930, largely due to restrictive immigration policies enacted in response to the Great Depression and prevailing nativist sentiments.

    • Resurgence (1960-1970): Immigration levels began to recover around the 1960s and 1970s, influenced by legislative reforms and changing global dynamics.

  • Percentage of Total Population:

    • Peak at Turn of 20th Century: Around the turn of the 20th century, foreign-born individuals comprised over 12% of the U.S. population, reflecting mass migration from Europe.

    • Decline by 1970: This percentage decreased to approximately 4% by 1970, the lowest point in the 20th century, influenced by restrictive immigration policies and global events.

    • Recovery to Late 19th Century Levels: Immigration levels rose again, reaching roughly the same percentage as in the late 19th century, driven by new waves of immigrants from Latin America, Asia, and Africa.

Policy Impacts on Immigration

  • National Origins Act of 1924: This act is identified as a primary cause for the decrease in immigration around 1930. The Act imposed de jure discrimination by using quotas to severely restrict immigration from countries outside Northern Europe. This reflected the racial and ethnic biases of the time, with Southern and Eastern Europeans not considered "white" in the same way as Northern Europeans.

    • Quotas: Set immigration quotas based on national origin, favoring Northern and Western European countries and severely limiting immigration from other regions.

    • Impact: Resulted in a significant reduction in the number of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa.

  • Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965: This landmark legislation reversed the national origin quotas set by the 1924 Act, leading to a significant shift in immigration patterns. The 1965 Act emphasized family reunification and skilled immigrants, opening doors for people from various parts of the world.

    • Reversal of Quotas: Abolished the national origin quotas, replacing them with a preference system based on family relationships, skills, and refugee status.

    • Global Impact: Led to increased immigration from Asia, Latin America, and Africa, diversifying the ethnic and racial composition of the U.S. population.

    • Effects Visible in Data: The resurgence in immigration shown in the chart data from the 1970s onward is a direct result of the 1965 Act.

American Attitudes Toward Immigration

  • Historical Ambivalence: American attitudes toward immigration have historically been marked by ambivalence, reflecting a tension between the nation's identity as a welcoming place for immigrants and fears about the social, economic, and cultural impacts of immigration.

  • Statue Of Liberty: Erected in 1883, the Statue of Liberty embodies a pro-immigration message. Its iconic words, "Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free," symbolize America's welcoming stance toward immigrants.

  • Chinese Exclusion Act: Passed one year prior to the Statue of Liberty dedication, the Chinese Exclusion Act suspended the immigration of Chinese laborers. This act starkly contrasts the welcoming message of the Statue of Liberty, reflecting the anti-immigrant sentiments and racial biases prevalent at the time.

    • Suspension of Immigration: Prohibited Chinese laborers from entering the U.S. for ten years; later extended and made permanent.

    • Impact: Led to a sharp decline in the Chinese population in the U.S. and widespread discrimination against Chinese immigrants.

  • Know Nothing Party: The Know Nothing Party, active in the mid-19th century, was an anti-immigration and anti-Catholic political movement. A political cartoon from that era depicts the anti-immigrant sentiments of the time, illustrating the nativist backlash against immigrants, particularly Catholics from Ireland and Germany.

Modern Public Opinion

  • Post-1965 Division: Gallup polls conducted after the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act revealed divided opinions among Americans regarding immigration levels. Many favored either maintaining the current levels or decreasing immigration, reflecting concerns about economic competition and cultural change.

  • Shift in the 1990s: By the 1990s, a majority of Americans expressed a desire to decrease immigration, influenced by economic anxieties and rising concerns about illegal immigration.

  • Contemporary Division: Public opinion on immigration has become increasingly divided in recent years, with roughly equal portions of the public supporting increased, maintained, or decreased immigration levels. This division reflects broader political and cultural polarization in American society.

IIRIRA of 1996

  • The IIRIRA (Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act) was introduced in 1996 to strengthen immigration enforcement and streamline deportation processes. The act made it easier to deport both legal and illegal immigrants for a wider range of offenses, including both violent and non-violent crimes. Additionally, it increased the difficulty for non-citizens to become naturalized citizens by raising eligibility requirements and tightening the naturalization process.

  • Impact: Following the passage of IIRIRA, there was a slight decrease in extremely negative sentiment towards immigration, possibly due to the perception that the government was taking action to address concerns about illegal immigration.

Immigration Experiences of Asian Americans

  • Diversity: It is crucial to recognize that Asian Americans are not a monolithic group. Different Asian ethnic groups have immigrated to the U.S. at different times, each with their own unique histories, motivations, and experiences.

Chinese Immigrants

  • First Wave: The first major wave of Chinese immigration occurred in the 1850s and 1860s, driven by the California Gold Rush and the demand for cheap labor to build the transcontinental railroads. Chinese migrants played a crucial role in constructing the western portion of the railroad, enduring harsh working conditions and discrimination.

  • Chinese Exclusion Act: After the completion of the transcontinental railroad, the U.S. government passed the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882. This act greatly limited Chinese immigration and integration into American society, reflecting nativist and racist sentiments.

Japanese Immigrants

  • Second Wave: Japanese migrants began arriving in the U.S. around 1900-1910, driven by political, cultural, and societal changes in Japan, including economic hardship and social upheaval. Many Japanese immigrants initially worked in agriculture and other labor-intensive industries.

  • World War II: During World War II, Japanese Americans, including U.S. citizens, were unjustly placed in internment camps based on their ethnicity. The Supreme Court upheld this decision in Korematsu v. United States, which is now widely regarded as one of its worst rulings, highlighting the violation of civil rights and the discriminatory treatment of Japanese Americans.

Modern Trends

  • In recent years, Asian migration to the U.S. has slightly exceeded Hispanic migration, reflecting the growing economic and educational opportunities in the U.S. and the increasing diversity of immigrant flows.

Latino Immigration

  • Diversity: It is essential to understand that Latino immigration is not a single, uniform phenomenon. It encompasses diverse groups of people migrating at different points in time for a variety of reasons, reflecting the complex political, economic, and social dynamics of Latin American countries.

Mexican Immigrants

  • First Group: The first group of Mexicans became part of the U.S. after the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). The U.S. gained a significant amount of territory, including what is now the American Southwest, through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

  • Territory: Under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexicans living in the newly acquired U.S. territory were automatically granted American citizenship, although this did not always translate into equal rights or treatment.

  • Second Wave: A second wave of Mexican immigration occurred around 1910-1920 in response to the Mexican Revolution. The revolution caused widespread social and political upheaval, prompting many Mexicans to seek refuge and economic opportunities in the U.S.

  • Agricultural Work: A significant portion of Mexican immigration, both historically and in recent decades, has involved agricultural work. Mexican immigrants have played a vital role in the agricultural sector, providing essential labor for planting, harvesting, and processing crops.

Puerto Rican Immigrants

  • Came After the Spanish-American War: Puerto Rico became a U.S. territory after the Spanish-American War in 1898. This marked the beginning of closer ties between Puerto Rico and the United States.

  • Citizens: In 1917, Puerto Ricans were granted U.S. citizenship through the Jones Act. This facilitated their migration to the American mainland, as they could move freely without visa restrictions.

  • Influxes: The granting of citizenship led to large influxes of Puerto Ricans to cities like New York and Chicago, where they sought economic opportunities and established vibrant communities.

Cuban Immigrants

  • Came After the Cuban Revolution: The Cuban Revolution in 1959, led by Fidel Castro, resulted in significant political and economic changes in Cuba, prompting different waves of Cuban migration to the U.S.

  • Settled Largely in Florida: Cuban immigrants largely chose to settle in Southern Florida, particularly in Miami and surrounding areas, due to the proximity to Cuba, the established Cuban community, and the warmer climate.

Central and Southern American Immigrants

  • Migrants from Central and Southern American countries are currently having a significant impact on immigration policy, particularly in the context of asylum claims and border security.

  • A common misconception is that most unauthorized immigrants are from Mexico. However, data indicates that illegal immigration increasingly involves individuals from Central and Southern American countries, driven by factors such as violence, political instability, and economic hardship.

Illegal Immigration Trends

  • Rise in the 1980s-1990s: Illegal immigration became a prominent issue in the 1980s and 1990s due to a combination of factors, including economic disparities, political instability in Latin America, and increased border enforcement.

  • Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) of 1986: The IRCA of 1986 aimed to address illegal immigration by making it illegal for employers to knowingly hire undocumented immigrants. It also introduced the E-Verify system to verify the legal status of employees.

  • Post-2000 Decline: After 2000, there was a decline in illegal immigration from Mexico, attributed to stricter enforcement measures, a stabilized Mexican economy, and an increase in guest worker visas.

Demographics of Undocumented Immigrants

  • Shift in Demographics: There has been a notable shift in the demographics of undocumented immigrants in the U.S. A greater percentage of undocumented immigrants from Mexico have been in the U.S. for an extended period (ten years or more) compared to recent arrivals, indicating a settled population.

Sanctuary Laws

  • Sanctuary laws are policies enacted at the state, county, or local city levels to limit the extent to which local law enforcement officers can enforce federal immigration laws. These laws aim to protect undocumented immigrants from deportation and ensure that local resources are focused on addressing local crime.

  • The rationale behind sanctuary laws is that local officers should prioritize addressing violent crime and theft rather than engaging in immigration enforcement, which is primarily a federal responsibility.

  • Oakland, California, is one of the cities that has passed sanctuary laws to protect undocumented immigrants who are residents, neighbors, friends, and business owners in the community.

  • Often, police officers themselves are in favor of not being required to enforce immigration laws, as it can strain community relations and divert resources from addressing local crime.

  • Immigration enforcement is primarily a federal responsibility, and local law enforcement agencies typically do not have the authority or resources to carry out immigration enforcement effectively.

  • Mass deportation could have significant negative economic effects in the short and medium term, disrupting industries that rely on immigrant labor and reducing consumer spending.

Contemporary Immigration Issues

  • Efforts to achieve comprehensive immigration reform at the federal level have repeatedly failed, and Congress has been unable to pass significant legislation on immigration in recent years due to partisan gridlock and conflicting priorities.

Pathway to Citizenship

  • Debates: The concept of a national pathway to citizenship involves providing a legal mechanism for undocumented immigrants who have been in the U.S. for an extended period to become naturalized citizens.

  • Conditions: Common preconditions for a pathway to citizenship include requiring applicants to wait their turn behind those who have immigrated legally, undergo criminal background checks, and pay back taxes.

  • Public Opinion: Public opinion has generally moved in the direction of support for a pathway to citizenship, with a majority of Americans favoring a path to legal status for undocumented immigrants who meet certain requirements.

  • Requirements: Typical requirements for obtaining citizenship through a pathway program include passing criminal records checks, paying back taxes, and fulfilling a residency requirement, which usually involves obtaining permanent residence for five years and then applying for citizenship three years later.

  • Arguments: A primary argument against a pathway to citizenship is whether it is fair to those who have migrated to the U.S. legally, raising questions of equity and justice.

Border Apprehensions

  • Increase in Apprehensions: A significant change occurred in 2021, leading to a surge in border apprehensions, reflecting a complex interplay of factors.

  • Factors: Economic conditions, the change in presidential administration with Joe Biden assuming office, and the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic have all contributed to the increase in border crossings. Countries such as Cuba, Venezuela, and Columbia have experienced large increases in the number of people attempting to leave and come to the U.S.

  • Perceptions of Policy: Political perceptions play a crucial role in migration decisions. The perception that the Biden administration would be more permissive on immigration than the Trump administration may have incentivized some migrants to attempt to enter the U.S., believing they had a better chance of being allowed to stay.

Caseload Handling: Asylum Seekers

  • Migrants who declare themselves at the border and seek asylum are typically assigned a court case and provided with information about their legal obligations. They are often instructed to stay with a designated contact person or at a specific address while awaiting their court hearing.

  • Catch and Release: The catch and release policy involves migrants declaring themselves at the border, being assigned a court case, and being released into the U.S. with instructions to appear at their court hearing. Concerns have been raised about whether individuals released under this policy will actually show up for their court hearings.

Detainment Centers

  • As an alternative to catch and release, some policymakers have advocated for the use of detainment centers to house migrants awaiting their court hearings. However, there are challenges associated with this approach, including a shortage of holding facilities to accommodate the large number of individuals seeking asylum.

  • Policy Implemented by the Trump Administration: The Trump administration implemented policies that led to increased detention of asylum seekers and stricter enforcement of immigration laws.

  • Minors: Under U.S. law, children under the age of 18 are generally not allowed to stay with their parents if their parents are in jail or prison. This policy has led to the separation of some children from their parents in immigration detention.

  • Separation of Families: The separation of families at the border has been a contentious issue, with roughly 5,000 children reportedly separated from their parents under the Trump administration's zero-tolerance policy. To this day, many of these children have not been reunited with their parents, raising humanitarian concerns.

Refugee Ceilings

  • U.S. law establishes a cap on the number of refugees allowed into the United States each year, known as the refugee ceiling. However, in practice, the U.S. often does not reach the ceiling due to various administrative and political factors.

  • It is very difficult to qualify for refugee status, as applicants must demonstrate a well-founded fear of persecution based on race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership in a particular social group.

  • The refugee vetting system is highly rigorous, involving multiple layers of security checks and interviews. As a result, refugees who are admitted into the U.S. typically pose a very low security risk.

Border Wall

  • The U.S.-Mexico border is approximately 2,000 miles long, stretching from around San Diego, California, to the tip of Southern Texas. The border region presents a variety of geographic and environmental challenges.

  • During Donald Trump's four years in office, approximately 80 new miles of border wall were constructed, and about 370 miles of existing wall were replaced. The construction of the border wall was a central policy priority of the Trump administration.

Issues About Building the Border Wall

  • A significant number of undocumented immigrants enter the U.S. by flying into the country legally and then overstaying their visas. A border wall would not address this mode of entry.

  • Building a border wall presents numerous logistical and environmental challenges. A large portion of the border is characterized by a river, which is part of a delicate ecosystem. These factors create logistical and economic challenges for wall construction and maintenance.