Unit 1: Political Systems, Regimes, and Governments Study Guide to Comparative Politics

Big Ideas and Methods of Political Analysis (MPA)

• Fundamental Goals of the AP Comparative Government and Politics Curriculum (Fall 2025):     * Power and Authority (PAU)     * Legitimacy and Stability (LEG)     * Democratization (DEM)     * Internal/External Forces (IEF)     * Methods of Political Analysis (MPA)

• Enduring Understanding (MPA): Empirical data is essential for identifying and explaining the political behavior of individuals and groups.

• Inferences and Explanations in Political Science:     * Political scientists construct knowledge through the analysis of quantitative and qualitative information.     * Sources include charts, tables, graphs, speeches, foundational documents, political cartoons, maps, and political commentaries.     * Analyzing empirical data using quantitative methods facilitates comparisons and inferences among course countries.

• Empirical Data vs. Qualitative Data:     * Empirical Data: Information derived from observation or experimentation. This includes statistics from governmental reports, polls, questionnaires, and surveys. These utilize objective measurements.     * Qualitative Data: Information that is difficult to measure, such as speeches, documents, and commentaries, used to make comparisons in areas like policy making and institutional interactions.

• Applications of Empirical Analysis:     * Evaluating political systems as democratic or authoritarian.     * Comparing policy making in presidential vs. parliamentary systems.     * Analyzing interactions between executive, legislative, and judicial branches.     * Studying voting behavior and political participation across ethnic and religious cleavages.

• Analytical Distinctions:     * Empirical Statements: Factual and objective.     * Normative Statements: Value-based statements or opinions that cannot be proven or disproven (e.g., "Putin should not have returned to become Russia’s president in 2012").     * Correlation: Exists when there is an association between two or more variables.     * Causation: A causal relationship where one variable produces a change in another. It is difficult to determine with certainty in comparative politics due to the inability to isolate numerous variables influencing policies or regime stability.

Comparative Data Collection and Economic Indicators

• The Human Development Index (HDI):     * Reported by the United Nations Development Programme.     * A summary measure of average achievement in key dimensions: life expectancy, amount of schooling, and income.     * HDI Rankings and Values (2016-2021):         * United Kingdom: 2016: $0.920$; 2018: $0.920$ (Rank 15); 2021: $0.929$ (Rank 18).         * United States: 2016: $0.922$; 2018: $0.920$ (Rank 15); 2021: $0.921$ (Rank 21).         * Russia: 2016: $0.815$; 2018: $0.824$ (Rank 49); 2021: $0.822$ (Rank 52).         * Iran: 2016: $0.796$; 2018: $0.797$ (Rank 65); 2021: $0.774$ (Rank 76).         * Mexico: 2016: $0.772$; 2018: $0.767$ (Rank 76); 2021: $0.758$ (Rank 86).         * China: 2016: $0.748$; 2018: $0.758$ (Rank 85); 2021: $0.768$ (Rank 79).         * Nigeria: 2016: $0.530$; 2018: $0.534$ (Rank 158); 2021: $0.535$ (Rank 163).

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP):     * The market value of goods and services produced over a certain time in a country.     * GDP (IMF Data in Millions of U.S. Dollars):         * United States: 2017: $19,390,600$; 2022 est: $25,035,164$.         * China: 2017: $12,014,610$; 2022 est: $18,321,197$.         * United Kingdom: 2017: $2,624,529$; 2022 est: $3,198,470$.         * Russia: 2017: $1,527,469$; 2022 est: $2,133,092$.         * Iran: 2017: $431,920$; 2022 est: $1,973,738$.         * Mexico: 2017: $1,149,236$; 2022 est: $1,424,533$.         * Nigeria: 2017: $376,284$; 2022 est: $504,203$.

• GDP Per Capita (IMF Data in U.S. Dollars):     * United States: 2017: $59,792$; 2022 est: $75,180$.     * United Kingdom: 2017: $39,800$; 2022 est: $47,320$.     * Iran: 2017: $5,289$; 2022 est: $23,030$.     * Russia: 2017: $10,955$; 2022 est: $14,670$.     * China: 2017: $8,643$; 2022 est: $12,970$.     * Mexico: 2017: $9,318$; 2022 est: $10,118$.     * Nigeria: 2017: $1,994$; 2022 est: $2,330$.

• GDP Growth Rate (IMF Data):     * United Kingdom: 2017: $1.2\%$, 2022: $3.6\%$.     * China: 2017: $6.7\%$, 2022: $3.2\%$.     * Nigeria: 2017: $0.8\%$, 2022: $3.2\%$.     * Iran: 2017: $3.5\%$, 2022: $3\%$.     * Mexico: 2017: $2.1\%$, 2022: $2.1\%$.     * United States: 2017: $2.2\%$, 2022: $1.6\%$.     * Russia: 2017: $1.8\%$, 2022: $-3.4\%$.

• Gini Index (Income Inequality):     * $100\%$ indicates perfect inequality; $0\%$ indicates perfect equality.     * Scores: Nigeria (2018): $35.1$; UK (2017): $35.1$; Russia (2020): $36$; China (2019): $38.2$; Iran (2019): $40.9$; United States (2019): $41.5$; Mexico (2020): $45.4$.

• GDP Composition by Economic Sector (Shift Over Time):     * China (2017 vs. 1995): Agriculture ($7.9\%$ vs $19\%$), Industry ($40.5\%$ vs $48\%$), Service ($51.6\%$ vs $33\%$).     * Iran (2016 vs. 1995): Agriculture ($9.6\%$ vs $21\%$), Industry ($35.3\%$ vs $37\%$), Service ($55\%$ vs $42\%$).     * Nigeria (2016 vs. 1997): Agriculture ($21.1\%$ vs $33\%$), Industry ($22.5\%$ vs $42\%$), Service ($56.4\%$ vs $25\%$).     * United Kingdom (2017 vs. 1995): Agriculture ($0.7\%$ vs $1.7\%$), Industry ($20.2\%$ vs $27.7\%$), Service ($79.2\%$ vs $70.6\%$).

Political Freedom and Transparency Indices

• Freedom House Scores (2021):     * Ranks political rights ($0$–$40$) and civil liberties ($0$–$60$). Overall score $0$ (Least Free) to $100$ (Most Free).     * United Kingdom: Score $94$ (FREE).     * United States: Score $83$ (FREE).     * Mexico: Score $60$ (PARTLY FREE).     * Nigeria: Score $46$ (PARTLY FREE).     * Russia: Score $19$ (NOT FREE).     * Iran: Score $14$ (NOT FREE).     * China: Score $9$ (NOT FREE).

• Corruption Perception Index (Transparency International):     * Scale $0$–$100$ (Higher = Lower perceived corruption).     * United Kingdom: 2017: $82$; 2021: $78$ (Rank 11).     * United States: 2017: $75$; 2021: $67$ (Rank 27).     * China: 2017: $41$; 2021: $45$ (Rank 66).     * Mexico: 2017: $29$; 2021: $31$ (Rank 124).     * Russia: 2017: $29$; 2021: $29$ (Rank 136).     * Iran: 2017: $30$; 2021: $25$ (Rank 150).     * Nigeria: 2017: $27$; 2021: $26$ (Rank 154).

• Fragile States Index (The Fund for Peace):     * Scale $0$–$120$ (Higher = more fragile/unstable).     * Nigeria: Index $97.2$ in 2022 (Rank 16).     * Iran: Index $84.1$ (Rank 39).     * Russia: Index $72.6$ (Rank 75).     * Mexico: Index $70.3$ (Rank 84).     * China: Index $66.9$ (Rank 98).     * United States: Index $46.6$ (Rank 140).     * United Kingdom: Index $40.6$ (Rank 150).

Political Systems, Regimes, States, and Nations

• Key Definitions:     * Political Systems: Laws, ideas, and procedures addressing authority and government influence on people and the economy.     * States: Political organizations with a permanent population, governing institutions, and control over territory with international recognition.     * Regimes: Fundamental rules controlling access to and exercise of political power. Regimes endure from government to government.     * Government: Individuals or institutions legally empowered to make binding decisions for a state.     * Sovereignty: Independent legal authority over a population in a particular territory.     * Nation: Group of people with commonalities (race, language, religion, ethnicity, political identity).

• Country Regime Analysis:     * China: Authoritarian. Established by revolution (1949) and constitution. The CCP has ultimate power. Xi Jinping removed term limits in 2018.     * Iran: Theocracy/Authoritarian. Established by revolution (1979) and constitution. Religious leader is head of state. Supreme leader has tremendous control over policy.     * Russia: Illiberal/Authoritarian. Constitution (1993) established after Soviet collapse. Strong presidency (Putin) with little political competition.     * Nigeria: Democratic/Illiberal. Constitutional democracy (1999). History of military regimes. Leans authoritarian due to executive dominance and corruption.     * Mexico: Democratic/Illiberal. Constitution (1917). Limited to one six-year term. Trending toward pluralism though corruption remains high.     * United Kingdom: Democratic. Categorized as democratic by tradition and Magna Carta (1215). No single written constitution.

• Identified Nations within States:     * China: Uighurs, Tibetans, Han Chinese.     * Iran: Persians, Azeris, Kurds.     * Mexico: Mestizo and indigenous peoples.     * Russia: Russian, Chechen, Tatar.     * Nigeria: Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo.     * United Kingdom: Scottish, Irish, English, Welsh.

Comparative Democracy and Authoritarianism

• Rule of Law vs. Arbitrary Decisions:     * Democracy: Mexico (Peña Nieto left due to limits); Nigeria (Legislature rejected third term for a president in 2006); UK (Commons blocked military strikes in Syria, 2013).     * Authoritarianism: China (Xi ending limits); Iran (Suppression of 2009 election protestors); Russia (2020 referendum allowing Putin extended rule).

• Media Control:     * Democratic Trends: UK has wide private media variety; Mexico/Nigeria allow dissent but journalists face high risks/weak protection.     * Authoritarian Trends: China use the "Great Fire Wall" to block dissent; Iran/Russia own/control most broadcast media to promote government policy (e.g., 2022 invasion of Ukraine).

• Transfer of Power and Elections:     * Mexico: first transfer from PRI to rival (PAN) in 2000 (Vicente Fox).     * Nigeria: first transfer from incumbent to rival in 2015 (Buhari defeating Jonathan).     * UK: Labour Party won in 2024 after 14 years of Conservative rule.     * Authoritarian Restrictions: China has no direct national elections; Iran’s Guardian Council vets candidates; Putin in Russia has never been forced into a second-round runoff.

• Transparency and Journalism:     * UK: Freedom of Information Act (2000) provides wide access.     * Nigeria: Freedom of Information Act (2011) exists but is often ignored by officials.     * Mexico: 54 journalists killed between 1992–2020; many murders unsolved due to drug cartel influence.     * Russia: 58 journalists killed between 1992–2020; laws implemented to punish "fake news" or disrespect of the state.     * China: Decline in investigative journalism under Xi Jinping; activists punished for lacking "correct political orientation."

Democratization Processes

• Components of Democratization:     * Expansion of a population's ability to shape policy.     * Transition from authoritarian to democratic regimes.     * Aims for competition, fairness, transparency, and universal suffrage.

• Election Commissions:     * Independent bodies: Mexico’s National Elections Institute (INE), Nigeria’s Independent Electoral Commission (NIEC/INEC), UK’s Electoral Commission.     * Lack of independence: China, Iran, Russia.

• Interest Group Systems:     * Corporatism: Government-created organizations to manage participation (authoritarian; e.g., China and historically Mexico).     * Pluralism: Independent interest groups (democratic; e.g., UK, Nigeria, modern Mexico).

• Rule Changes for Representation:     * Mexico: Gender quotas reached $50\%$ in Congress by 2018; 2019 #ParidadEnTodo (parity in everything) amendment; first female president (Claudia Sheinbaum) in 2024.     * Electoral Systems: Mexico and Russia use mixed systems (district and proportional); Nigeria uses single-member-districts.

Sources of Power and Authority

• Military Influence:     * China: CCP controls the People’s Liberation Army (PLA). It is a political army and suppressed 1989 Tiananmen protests.     * Iran: Supreme leader controls military; used to suppress the 2009 Green Movement and 2022 Mahsa Amini protests.     * Mexico/Nigeria: Military used for domestic stability (drug trafficking/religious violence) but spend significantly less than China, Russia, and Iran.

• Charismatic and Traditional Authority:     * Russia: Vladimir Putin invokes nationalism and charismatic leadership to consolidate power.     * UK: The monarch acts as a symbol of legitimacy (e.g., King Charles III’s coronation in 2023), while the House of Commons holds the actual governing power.     * Iran: Ayatollah Khomeini implemented "Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist" (Vilayat-e Faqih) after the 1979 revolution.

Stability, Centralization, and Federalism

• Federal vs. Unitary Systems:     * Federal (Mexico, Nigeria, Russia): Power divided among levels. Mexico allows state-level choice on issues like abortion (though a 2021 Supreme Court ruling changed this).     * Unitary (China, Iran, UK): Power concentrated at national level. UK has devolved power to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland (e.g., the 2023 dispute over Scotland's gender recognition bill).

• Centralization Trends:     * Russia: Putin neutralized regional leaders after 2004 Beslan terrorist attack; ended direct election of governors (re-instated 2012).     * China: Despite having autonomous regions (Xinjiang, Tibet), the central government uses force to minimize separatism.

Unit 1 Glossary

• Empirical data: Fact-based information from observation or experimentation.     * Normative statement: A value or opinion statement (cannot be proven).     * Quantitative data: Information measured with numbers.     * Qualitative data: Information difficult to measure (speeches, cartoons).     * Correlation: Association between two or more variables.     * Causation: Causal relationship (difficult to isolate in politics).     * Human Development Index (HDI): UN measure of development (life expectancy, school, income).     * Gross Domestic Product (GDP): Market value of goods/services in a country.     * Gini index: Measure of income inequality ($0$–$100$).     * Transparency: Citizen access to information about policy making.     * Corruption: Public officials abusing power for personal benefit.     * Regime: Fundamental rules controlling exercise of power.     * Sovereignty: Independent legal authority over territory.     * Nation: Group with common race, language, or political identity.     * Rule of Law: Governance by known laws, not arbitrary decisions.     * Suffrage: Voting rights.     * Civil Rights: Protection from discrimination.     * Civil Liberties: Protection against abuse of power by govt.     * Corporatism: Government-created/supported interest groups.     * Pluralism: Independent interest groups.     * Illiberal democracy: System with elections but diminished civil liberties.     * Theocracy: State controlled by religious leaders.     * Totalitarianism: Authoritarian govt with severe limits on movement/employment.     * Military regime: Military leaders hold top authority.     * Coup: Sudden/illegal removal of govt by elite faction.     * Revolution: Overthrow of a system with large population support.     * Democratic consolidation: Process where democracy becomes unlikely to revert to authoritarianism.     * Power: Ability of state to influence conduct.     * Authority: State's legitimate right to enforce power.     * Devolution: Delegation of power to regional governments.     * Legitimacy: Belief of constituents that government has the right to use power.     * Coercion: Use of government force/violence to guide behavior.