The Politics of Manifest Destiny and the US-Mexican War
The Rise of the Second Party System and the Whig Party
Development of the Second Party System: The American political landscape evolved into a second party system following the conclusion of Andrew Jackson’s war on the Bank of the United States. This system was defined by the competition between two primary parties:
The Democrats: This party had been in continuous existence since the time of Thomas Jefferson.
The Whig Party: A newly minted political organization named by Henry Clay.
The Symbolic Meaning of the Whigs: The name "Whig" was chosen by Henry Clay to suggest that Andrew Jackson was assuming the role of a king (often referred to as "King Andrew I"). By using this name, the Whigs positioned themselves as the opponents of tyranny, drawing a parallel to British Whigs who opposed monarchical power. Whig political imagery often depicted Jackson as a king wearing a crown and scepter, with his foot stomping on the US Constitution. Clay’s view was that Jackson lacked a fundamental understanding of or regard for the Constitution, exemplified by his aggressive war on the Bank of the United States.
Adaptation of Democratic Techniques: Despite their opposition to Jackson, the Whigs were very adept at adopting "small d" democratic techniques. They appropriated the Democratic Party's methods of appealing to the general populace, utilizing popular symbology and catchphrases to mobilize voters.
The Log Cabin and Hard Cider Campaign of $1840$
The Election Context: The election of was only the second time the Whigs attempted to capture the presidency. The campaign became known as the "Log Cabin and Hard Cider Campaign," and is recognized as one of the most famous in American history.
Image Construction for William Henry Harrison:
The Common Man Persona: The Whigs successfully branded their candidate, William Henry Harrison, as a man "cut from the common cloth," a man of the earth.
The Log Cabin and Hard Cider Symbols: To emphasize Harrison's supposed frontier ruggedness, they used symbols of American hardihood and individualism: living in a log cabin and preferring hard cider to more sophisticated drinks.
Counter-Attacks Turned into Assets: When Democrats attacked Harrison as a "simpleton" who would rather stay in a log cabin drinking hard cider, the Whigs embraced the image. They argued that Harrison didn't need champagne or fine French wine like the elites; he was one of the common folk.
The Portrayal of Martin Van Buren: Conversely, the Whigs depicted the incumbent Democrat, Martin Van Buren, as a royalist and an aristocrat "born with a silver spoon." This was effective despite the reality that Harrison himself was fairly wealthy.
The Presidency of John Tyler and the Annexation of Texas
Succession: William Henry Harrison won the presidency but died shortly after his inauguration. His Vice President, John Tyler, assumed the office.
Tyler’s Political Identity: Tyler was a convert to the Whig Party but had been a lifelong Democrat. This made him a suspect figure within the Whig Party.
The Annexation of Texas: Tyler sought to secure his legacy by annexing Texas. Texas had won its independence following the Battle of San Jacinto but had been repeatedly rebuffed for statehood due to sectional conflicts.
Sectional Concerns: Opponents feared a conspiracy of southern slaveholders to expand their strength in the Senate.
The Parity Question: Based on the precedent of the Missouri Compromise, politicians were wary of upsetting the balance of power. Since Texas was massive, there was speculation it could be subdivided into four, five, six, or even seven states, adding numerous pro-southern, pro-cotton, and pro-slave senators to Congress.
Method of Annexation: In , during his lame-duck period, Tyler secured the annexation of Texas via a joint resolution of congress. Unlike a treaty, which requires a two-thirds majority, a joint resolution only required a simple majority.
The Expansionist Vision of James K. Polk
The Election of $1844$: James K. Polk won the presidency, regaining the office for the Democrats. He was favored by Andrew Jackson because Polk was the only potential candidate who did not waver on the issue of Texas annexation.
Polk’s Goal Platform: Polk entered office with three specific territorial objectives:
Securing the annexation of Texas.
Settling the Oregon question (the boundary dispute with Britain).
Securing the purchase of California.
Polk’s Legacy of Expansion: Polk is considered the greatest annexationist in American political history. In a single four-year term, he added more territory to the United States (via Texas, the Mexican Cession, and Oregon) than Thomas Jefferson did with the Louisiana Purchase. The total acquisition exceeded square miles.
The Oregon Question and Compromise with Britain
Diplomatic Tension: Polk was criticized for nearly leading the U.S. into two simultaneous wars (with Mexico and Britain). However, historians suggest Britain did not truly want a war and recognized they could not hold the territory comprising present-day Oregon and Washington.
"$54$ $40$ or Fight":
The American public chanted the slogan " or Fight," demanding territory all the way up to Canada to the latitude of degrees, minutes.
Polk initially offered to negotiate at the , but when a British emissary (lacking ministry approval) rebuffed him, Polk adopted a more bellicose stance, returning to the demand.
Settlement: Ultimately, the British calculated that because there were far more American citizens south of the parallel, a negotiated settlement was preferable to a losing war. The boundary was extended along the westward to the coast, with Britain receiving certain waterway concessions. This settlement allowed Polk to focus on the emerging war with Mexico.
Origins of the US-Mexican War
Legitimacy Disputes: Mexico did not recognize the annexation of Texas. While the Mexican dictator Santa Ana had signed a treaty agreeing to the loss of Texas after San Jacinto, the Mexican Congress repudiated the agreement.
Texas as an Independent Republic: Polk’s position was that the annexation was a legitimate matter between two independent nations. By , the Republic of Texas had functioned as an independent nation with its own president and legislature for nearly a decade, and had been recognized by Britain and France.
The Boundary Dispute: The United States and Texas claimed the Southwestern border was the Rio Grande, whereas Mexico recognized only the Nueces River as the boundary.
The Spark of Conflict:
Polk sent an emissary to Mexico to negotiate the Texas border and the purchase of California, but the Mexican government refused to receive him.
Military Standoff: Polk dispatched Zachary Taylor and a contingent of troops to the Rio Grande (after stopping at the Nueces). This put American and Mexican forces in a direct face-off across the river.
The Ambush: In , Mexican soldiers crossed the Rio Grande and ambushed an American patrol, killing most of them. One survivor was sent back to Taylor with the message that the Americans were encroaching on sovereign Mexican soil.
The Declaration of War: Polk had already drafted a war message based on Mexico’s refusal to receive his emissary and unpaid claims from the Texas War of Independence. Upon hearing of the ambush, he edited the message to include the famous line: "American blood has been shed on American soil." Congress subsequently declared war.
Politicization and Sectionalism: The Wilmot Proviso
The Wilmot Proviso: When Polk asked for funds to prosecute the war, David Wilmot, a freshman representative from Pennsylvania, added an amendment (proviso) to the legislation.
The Stipulation: The proviso stated that in any territory gained from the US-Mexican War, slavery would not be permitted.
Impact: While it passed the House of Representatives, it failed in the Senate. This immediately and permanently politicized the war along sectional lines.
Popular Sovereignty: Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan proposed a compromise known as "popular sovereignty." This would allow local settlers in the new territories to decide the question of slavery for themselves.
The Calhoun Resolutions ($1847$): John C. Calhoun (Senator from South Carolina) countered with resolutions stating that the Constitution protected private property (including slaves) and that citizens had the right to take their property into any territory or state. He argued the government could never deny a citizen the right to take slaves into new lands.
The "Pair of Shears" Metaphor: Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri famously stated that while Popular Sovereignty and the Calhoun Resolutions achieved nothing separately, together they formed a "pair of shears" or scissors that would "cut the cords of union," as the two positions were irreconcilable.
Conclusion of the War and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Military Success: The war was highly successful for the United States. The campaign led by Winfield Scott against Mexico City was the "capstone." Despite desperate defenses (including young military cadets at a school in Mexico City), Scott captured the capital.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: The Mexican government capitulated and signed this treaty, which included:
The Mexican Cession: Mexico ceded territory that constitutes most of present-day New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and parts of Colorado.
The Purchase of California: The U.S. paid Mexico for the California territory.
Claims Settlement: Mexico was relieved of the debts claimed by U.S. citizens in Texas.
Conclusion of Polk’s Term: Having accomplished his goals—Texas, the Mexican Cession, California, and Oregon—in one term, Polk did not seek reelection. However, the question of slavery's extension into these new territories remained at the forefront of American politics.