Study Notes on The Age of Jackson, 1824-1844

THE AGE OF JACKSON, 1824-1844

• Overview
    - The era marks the emergence of popular politics in the 1820s and is characterized by the presidency of Andrew Jackson (1829-1837).
    - Often referred to as the Age of the Common Man or the Era of Jacksonian Democracy.
    - Historians debate Jackson's role: whether he was a major shaper of events, a political opportunist, or simply a symbol of his time.

Jacksonian Democracy

• The political changes during the Jacksonian years paralleled complex social and economic changes.

The Rise of a Democratic Society

• Visitors in the 1830s, notably Alexis de Tocqueville, noted the informal manners and democratic attitudes prevalent among Americans.
    - Example: Under the American Plan, men and women from various classes dined together in hotels, reflecting a blend in social classes.
    - In transportation (stagecoaches, steamboats, and later railroads), there were no class distinctions in compartments, as rich and poor traveled together.
    - Clothing: Americans of all backgrounds commonly wore simple dark trousers and jackets, while women adopted styles from magazines like Godey's Lady's Book, which showcased more extravagant styles.

• Principle of Equality
    - Among white males, the belief in equal opportunity was prevalent, yet it ignored the oppression of enslaved African Americans and discrimination against free blacks.
    - The myth of the “self-made man” emerged; however, there was no concept of a “self-made woman” until feminists pushed for equal rights later.

Politics of the Common Man

• Shift of Political Power
    - Between 1824 and 1840, politics became dominated by middle and lower classes rather than the wealthy elites.
    - Factors contributing to democratization:
      - New suffrage laws, changes in political parties, election campaigns, improved education, increased newspaper circulation.

Universal Male Suffrage

• Western states (Indiana, Illinois, Missouri) adopted constitutions granting voting rights to all white males, removing religious or property qualifications.

• This trend spread to eastern states, resulting in universal white male suffrage, which led to a significant increase in voting.
    - Statistics:
      - Presidential voting increased from approximately 350,000 votes in 1824 to over 2.4 million in 1840, a growth of nearly sevenfold.

Party Nominating Conventions

• Candidates were previously nominated by state legislatures or a closed-door meeting known as King Caucus; this changed in the 1830s.
    - The Anti-Masonic party was the first to utilize nominating conventions, allowing for greater public participation.

Popular Election of the President

• By the 1832 election, most states had embraced public selection of presidential electors, increasing democratic engagement.

The Two-Party System

• The new system required candidates to establish large political parties to campaign effectively on a national level.
    - The emergence of third parties (e.g., Anti-Masonic party and Workingmen’s party) tapped into groups previously uninterested in politics.

More Elected Offices

• An increased number of state and local officials were elected instead of appointed, enhancing voter involvement and interest.

Popular Campaigning

• Political campaigns turned into entertainment focused on the interests of the common people, featuring parades, rallies, and free offerings.
    - Campaigns often turned personal, attacking opponents’ characters and perceived elitism.

Spoils System and Rotation of Officeholders

• Government jobs became linked to party loyalty under the spoils system, which President Jackson implemented.
    - Jackson's approach emphasized rotation in office, asserting no one had a permanent claim to office due to party loyalty.
    - Jackson believed that a diverse range of citizens could hold office, further asserting democratic ideals.

Jackson Versus Adams

The Election of 1824

• The breakdown of the old congressional caucus system for selecting candidates resulted in a contested election with four Democratic-Republican candidates:
    - John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, William Crawford, Andrew Jackson.
    - Despite winning the popular vote, Jackson lost because no candidate achieved a majority of electoral votes, leading to a House vote.
    - Henry Clay's influence led to Adams’ victory, prompting accusations from Jackson supporters of a "corrupt bargain" when Clay became Secretary of State.

Adams' Presidency

• Jackson's supporters viewed Adams' initiatives (e.g., national university, internal improvements) as violations of constitutional principles and a waste of money.

• The new tariff law in 1828, viewed as favorable to the North, fanned discontent in the South, where it was labeled a "tariff of abominations."

The Revolution of 1828

• Jacksonians used popular discontent and new political tactics to win the election of 1828, employing personal attacks and propaganda.
    - Jackson appealed as a war hero and man of the frontier, carrying every state west of the Appalachians.

The Presidency of Andrew Jackson

• Jackson was a distinctive president, a strong leader and a symbol of working and middle-class Americans.

• He was born poor, gained fame as a fighter, and transitioned to a wealthy planter, yet retained his frontier roots.
    - Unique traits: displayed rough manners, had no formal college education, and became a legendary self-made man.

Presidential Power

• Jackson positioned himself as a representative and protector of the common man.

• He opposed excessive federal spending and narrowly interpreted congressional powers, vetoing more bills than all previous presidents combined (12 total).
    - Example: Vetoed federal funding for the Maysville Road citing it as unconstitutional, reinforcing the growth of presidential power over Congress.

• Advisors: Jackson's inner circle, termed the "kitchen cabinet," held more sway over policy than his appointed cabinet.

Peggy Eaton Affair

• The social plight of Peggy O'Neale Eaton, Jackson’s secretary of war's wife, highlighted Jackson's advocacy for the common woman.

• When cabinet wives snubbed Eaton, Jackson intervened, leading to resignations from his cabinet and further complications, including the departure of John C. Calhoun.

Indian Removal Act (1830)

• Jackson's vision of democracy excluded American Indians, prioritizing land acquisition for settlers.
    - He signed the Indian Removal Act, leading to the relocation of numerous tribes west of the Mississippi River by 1835.
    - The Bureau of Indian Affairs was established in 1836 to support these tribes during resettlement.

Legal Challenges and the Supreme Court

• Georgia's laws demanded Cherokee migration; the Supreme Court ruled in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) that Cherokees could not sue in federal court.
    - In Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the Court ruled Georgia laws didn’t apply in Cherokee territory, but Jackson supported state authority over federal rulings.

Trail of Tears

• The forced migration led to tremendous suffering for the Cherokees; about 15,000 were relocated in 1838, with 4,000 deaths reported on the journey known as the “Trail of Tears.”

Nullification Crisis

• Jackson advocated for states' rights but opposed any notion of disunion.

• The South Carolina legislature declared the Tariff of 1828 unconstitutional, echoing John C. Calhoun's nullification theory, claiming states could invalidate federal laws.

Webster-Hayne Debate

• The debate between Daniel Webster and Robert Hayne crystallized the conflict over states' rights versus federal authority.
    - Jackson affirmed federal supremacy with his declaration: “Our federal Union, it must be preserved.”

South Carolina Nullification

• In 1832, South Carolina attempted to nullify tariffs, prompting Jackson to prepare for confrontation. He sought Congressional approval for military action, affirming a firm stance against nullification.
    - Compromise arrived when Congress agreed to lower tariffs, leading to South Carolina backing down from its stance.

Jackson's Approach to Slavery

• Jackson supported southern interests and took measures to curb the anti-slavery movement, including restricting anti-slavery literature through the mail.

Bank Veto

• The Bank of the United States faced opposition under Jackson, paralleling concerns about its influence and elitism.

• Jackson considered the bank unconstitutional; in a strategic political move, he vetoed the charter renewal bill in 1832, labeling it a monopoly benefiting the wealthy.

• Outcome: Jackson's veto and subsequent re-election illustrated his popularity among the common people, consolidating a two-party system with a growing divide between Democrats and Whigs.

The Two-Party System

Transition from One to Two-Party System

• The Age of Jackson saw the emergence of two political parties:
    - Democrats: Supported by Jackson and his ideals.
    - Whigs: Opponents led by Henry Clay, promoting their own ideologies based on earlier Federalist principles.

Party Characteristics

• Democrats:
    - Advocated for local rule, limited government, free trade, and opportunities for white males.
    - Concerns focused on monopolies and the national bank.

• Whigs:
    - Favored American System initiatives, a national bank, high tariffs, and federal spending on improvements.
    - Supported primarily in Northern states, particularly New England and the Mid-Atlantic.

Jackson's Second Term

• In his second term, Jackson aimed to dismantle the Bank by redistributing federal funds to state banks, termed “pet banks” by his critics.

• Specie Circular: Issued to curb inflation, requiring federal land purchases to be made in specie, which ultimately contributed to the Panic of 1837.

The Election of 1836

• Jackson selected Martin Van Buren as his successor to maintain his political legacy.

• The Whigs failed in a divided strategy to defeat Van Buren. Van Buren won 58% of the popular vote, securing the presidency.

Van Buren and the Panic of 1837

• Upon taking office, Van Buren faced an immediate financial panic following several bank closures.

• The Whigs attributed economic distress to Jackson’s laissez-faire policies, calling on Democrats to take responsibility for the crisis.

The 1840 Election

• The Whigs were poised to capitalize on economic dissatisfaction, unifying around William Henry Harrison, a popular war hero.

• Campaign strategies included exaggerated symbolism tied to Harrison's humble origins, complete with log cabins and hard cider distributions to voters.

• The election saw a remarkable turnout, with 78% of eligible voters participating; Harrison won decisively against Van Buren, marking the rise of the Whig party.

Harrison's Presidency and Aftermath

• William Henry Harrison died shortly after taking office, leading to John Tyler succeeding him.

• Tyler proved uncooperative with Whig directives, aligning more with Democratic philosophies, marking an end to the Jacksonian Era as the focus shifted to slavery and the impending Mexican War.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES: WERE THE JACKSONIANS DEMOCRATIC?

• Debate centers on whether Jackson's rise represented a genuine democratic shift or if it was a manipulation of the masses. Early accounts praised the election of Jackson as a win of common Americans against the elite, while Whig historians criticized him as a despot.

• Historians like Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. contend that Jacksonian democracy was rooted in urban working-class support, hinting at evolving political coalitions.

• Modern analyses indicate that factors like religion and ethnicity shaped voting more than purely economic class, illustrating a complex voting landscape in the 1830s.