AP US Government & Politics Content Review
I. Constitutional Origins:
A. The Nature of Governments:
Purposes of Government
Maintain order, provide public services, ensure national security, support the economy, and protect individual liberties.
Direct vs. Indirect Democracy
Direct democracy: Citizens vote on laws directly (e.g., town hall meetings).
Indirect democracy (Republic): Citizens elect representatives to make decisions (e.g., U.S. Congress).
B. Theories of Democracy:
Theory | Brief Explanation | Examples |
|---|---|---|
Pluralist | Power is distributed among many groups competing to influence policy | Interest groups like the NRA or NAACP |
Elite | A small number of wealthy or powerful individuals dominate politics | Corporate influence on Congress |
Hyperpluralism | Too many strong groups create gridlock and weaken government | Conflicting interest groups block effective legislation |
Participatory | Emphasizes broad participation in politics | Town hall meetings, grassroots campaigns |
C. The Policy-Making Cycle:
Primary agent of political socialization
Family
Secondary agents
Media, schools, peers, religion, political leaders, social organizations
D. Enlightenment Political Philosophies:
Compare Hobbes and Locke
Hobbes | Similarities | Locke |
|---|---|---|
Believed people are naturally selfish, need strong ruler | Believed in social contract theory | Believed in natural rights (life, liberty, property) and limited government |
Advocated absolute monarchy | Both emphasized need for government | Advocated consent of the governed and right to revolt |
II. American Documents:
A. Declaration of Independence:
How the Declaration of Independence incorporated John Locke’s ideas
Locke’s ideas of natural rights (life, liberty, property) and the social contract are directly reflected in the Declaration, where Thomas Jefferson writes that governments are created to protect these rights, and when they fail, people have the right to revolt.
B. The Articles of Confederation:
Powers held by the central government under the Articles of Confederation
Conduct foreign policy, make treaties, raise an army, coin money.
Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation
No power to tax, no executive branch, no power to regulate interstate commerce, needed unanimous consent for amendments, lacked strong central authority.
Shays’ Rebellion and the weaknesses of the Articles
Showed that the federal government couldn’t maintain order or respond effectively to domestic unrest, highlighting the weakness of the Articles and pushing for a stronger central government.
C. The U.S. Constitution:
Factions
Groups of people with shared interests that may conflict with the rights of others or the public good. James Madison addressed factions in Federalist 10, advocating for a large republic to control them.
The Connecticut (Great) Compromise
Created a bicameral legislature: the Senate (equal representation for states) and the House of Representatives (representation based on population).
The Three-Fifths Compromise
Determined that slaves would count as 3/5 of a person for purposes of taxation and representation. Controversial because it gave Southern states more political power and dehumanized enslaved individuals.
D. Constitutional Principles:
Constitutional Principles:
Principle | Explanation | Example |
|---|---|---|
Popular Sovereignty | Government derives power from the people’s consent | Voting in elections |
Limited Government | Government is restricted by law and the Constitution | Bill of Rights |
Separation of Powers | Dividing government into branches (legislative, executive, judicial) to prevent abuse of power | Congress makes laws, the President enforces them |
Checks and Balances | Each branch can limit the powers of the other branches | President can veto bills from Congress |
Judicial Review | Courts have the power to review laws and executive actions to ensure they are constitutional | Marbury v. Madison (1803) |
Federalism | Power is divided between national and state governments | State vs. federal jurisdiction (e.g., marijuana legalization) |
E. Structure of the Constitution:
Forbidden Concepts under the U.S. Constitution
Writ of Habeas Corpus: Right to a court hearing if arrested.
Bills of Attainder: Laws that punish individuals without trial.
Ex Post Facto Laws: Laws that punish actions that were legal when committed.
Meaning of Constitutional Provisions:
Constitutional Provision | Meaning |
|---|---|
Full Faith and Credit Clause | Requires states to recognize the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of other states. |
Supremacy Clause | Federal law is supreme over state law when there is a conflict. |
F. The Purpose and Intent of the Founders:
Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists
Federalists: Supported a strong central government to provide order and protect rights (e.g., Alexander Hamilton).
Anti-Federalists: Opposed strong central government, feared it would infringe on individual rights (e.g., Thomas Jefferson).
Court Cases and Bill of Rights Evolution:
Barron v. Baltimore (1833): The Bill of Rights did not apply to state governments, only federal.
Gitlow v. New York (1925): The Bill of Rights was incorporated to apply to state governments via the 14th Amendment's due process clause.
III. American Federalism
A. Defining Federalism
20. What is federalism?
A system where power is divided between national and state governments.
21. Why did the Founders feel that dividing power was necessary?
To prevent tyranny and protect liberty by ensuring no single government level becomes too powerful.
22. Compare and contrast Dual Federalism and Cooperative Federalism
Dual Federalism ("Layer Cake") | Similarities | Cooperative Federalism ("Marble Cake") |
|---|---|---|
Clear division between national and state powers | Both divide power between federal and state levels | National and state governments work together on issues |
Powers rarely overlap | Both aim to govern effectively | Shared responsibilities like education and transportation |
Common in 1800s-1930s | Developed during the New Deal era (1930s) |
B. Separation of National and State Governments
23. Define the following types of constitutional powers:
Constitutional Powers | Brief Definition | Examples |
|---|---|---|
Enumerated powers | Powers explicitly listed in the Constitution | Coin money, declare war |
Implied powers | Powers not written but necessary to carry out enumerated powers | National Bank |
Inherent powers | Powers a sovereign nation has, even if not stated | Regulate immigration |
Reserved powers | Powers not given to the national government, kept by states (10th Amend.) | Education, marriage laws |
Concurrent powers | Powers shared by both state and national governments | Taxing, law enforcement |
24. Why is the “necessary and proper clause” commonly called the elastic clause?
It allows Congress to stretch its powers to meet new needs.
25. Describe the important precedent set by McCulloch v. Maryland (1819):
Confirmed implied powers through the Necessary and Proper Clause; ruled states can’t tax the federal government—federal law is supreme.
26. What was your favorite thing about class this year?
(Your personal answer goes here!)
C. Cooperative Federalism
27. Why is cooperative federalism often referred to as “marble cake federalism”?
Because federal and state powers are mixed and work together on common issues, like the swirls in a marble cake.
28. What is devolution?
The transfer of power from the federal government back to the states.
D. Fiscal Federalism
29. Describe the meaning of fiscal federalism:
The use of federal funds (grants) to influence state policies and programs.
30. How does fiscal federalism resemble the “carrot and a stick” metaphor?
The “carrot” is funding to encourage compliance; the “stick” is the threat of withholding funds if states don’t comply.
31. Define the meaning of the following grants-in-aid:
Grants-in-Aid | Definition |
|---|---|
Categorical Grants | Funds for specific, narrowly defined purposes with strict guidelines. |
Formula Grants | Distributed based on a formula (e.g., population, income). |
Project Grants | Given for specific projects via applications. |
Block Grants | Broad-purpose grants with fewer restrictions—states have flexibility. |
32. Explain the controversy of federal government creating unfunded mandates. How does No Child Left Behind exemplify this?
Unfunded mandates require states to comply with federal rules without providing money to fund them. No Child Left Behind demanded states improve education and testing standards without giving adequate funding, burdening local schools.
33. Explain the concept of New Federalism:
A political philosophy that favors returning power to the states, often associated with Nixon and Reagan’s administrations—emphasizes state flexibility and block grants.
IV. Political Ideologies and Beliefs
A. Political Culture
34. What is political culture?
The shared beliefs, values, and norms about how citizens relate to government and to one another.
35. List and define the core values of American political culture:
Core Value | Definition |
|---|---|
Individualism | Belief that individuals should be responsible for themselves and their actions. |
Equality of Opportunity | Everyone should have the same chance to succeed. |
Free Enterprise | Economic system based on private ownership with limited government interference. |
Rule of Law | All people and institutions are subject to and accountable under the law. |
Limited Government | Government powers are restricted by the Constitution to protect individual rights. |
36. What is political socialization?
The process by which people develop their political beliefs, values, and ideology.
37. List some of the most common agents of political socialization:
Family, education, peers, media, religion, and major life events.
B. Political Ideology
38. What is political ideology?
A consistent set of beliefs about the role of government and public policy.
39. Fill in the chart to compare conservative and liberal ideologies:
Issue | Conservatives | Liberals |
|---|---|---|
Size of Government | Smaller government, less regulation | Larger government to address social issues |
Taxes | Lower taxes | Higher taxes on the wealthy to fund programs |
Government Spending | Cut social programs, increase military | Fund welfare and education, reduce military |
Abortion | Pro-life (restrict access) | Pro-choice (protect access) |
Gun Control | Protect gun rights | Support stricter gun laws |
Business Regulation | Fewer regulations | More regulations to protect public interests |
Healthcare | Private sector-based | Support government-funded healthcare |
C. Political Ideology and Policymaking
40. Explain how political ideologies influence policy debates and citizen beliefs about government’s role:
Liberals often support policies promoting equality and social welfare, while conservatives advocate for individual responsibility and limited government intervention, leading to differing views on taxation, healthcare, and regulation.
41. What are libertarians?
People who support minimal government in both economic and personal matters—favor free markets and personal freedoms.
42. What is populism?
A political approach appealing to the interests of ordinary people who feel ignored by elites; can be right- or left-wing.
43. What is progressivism?
A belief in using government power to achieve social justice and reform—focus on civil rights, environment, and worker protections.
V. Political Participation
A. Types of Political Participation
44. Define political participation:
All the ways people take part in politics and government (e.g., voting, protesting, contacting officials).
45. List some examples of conventional and unconventional participation:
Conventional | Unconventional |
|---|---|
Voting | Protesting |
Volunteering for a campaign | Civil disobedience |
Donating to political causes | Sit-ins |
Writing to public officials | Boycotts |
B. Voting Behavior
46. What is political efficacy?
The belief that one’s political participation makes a difference.
47. Define voter turnout:
The percentage of eligible citizens who actually vote in an election.
48. List several factors that influence whether someone will vote:
Age (older people vote more)
Education (more educated vote more)
Income (higher income = higher turnout)
Political efficacy
Registration laws
Type of election (presidential vs. midterm)
49. Why is voter turnout lower in the U.S. compared to other democracies?
Strict registration laws, weekday voting, frequent elections, low political efficacy.
C. Expanding the Vote
50. What are some major laws and amendments that expanded voting rights?
Amendment/Law | Impact |
|---|---|
15th Amendment | Gave African American men the right to vote |
19th Amendment | Gave women the right to vote |
24th Amendment | Banned poll taxes |
26th Amendment | Lowered voting age to 18 |
Voting Rights Act of 1965 | Banned literacy tests and enforced minority voting rights |
D. Voting Models
51. Compare the major models of voting behavior:
Model | Explanation |
|---|---|
Rational Choice | Voting based on personal benefit |
Retrospective | Voting based on past performance |
Prospective | Voting based on future promises |
Party-Line | Voting based on political party |
E. Elections and Political Campaigns
52. What is the difference between a primary and a general election?
Primary: chooses party nominee; General: final contest between party nominees.
53. What is the Electoral College?
System for electing the president—each state has electoral votes equal to its number of senators and representatives.
54. How does the winner-take-all system affect elections?
Encourages two-party dominance; third parties struggle to win electoral votes.
I. Constitutional Origins
A. The Nature of Governments
Purposes of government:
Maintain order (laws, security).
Provide public goods (roads, education).
Protect rights (life, liberty, property).
Promote equality (civil rights, welfare).
Direct vs. Indirect Democracy:
Direct: Citizens vote on policies (e.g., referendums).
Indirect: Representatives make decisions (e.g., U.S. Congress).
B. Theories of Democracy
Theories:
Pluralist: Power distributed among groups (e.g., interest groups).
Elite: Power held by wealthy/educated (e.g., corporate influence).
Hyperpluralism: Too many groups weaken government (gridlock).
Participatory: Broad citizen involvement (e.g., town halls).
C. Policy-Making Cycle
Primary agent of socialization: Family.
Secondary agents: Schools, media, peers, religion.
D. Enlightenment Philosophies
Hobbes vs. Locke:
Hobbes: Strong gov’t needed to control selfish humans (Leviathan).
Locke: Natural rights (life, liberty, property); gov’t by consent (Two Treatises).
II. American Documents
A. Declaration of Independence
Locke’s influence: "Life, liberty, pursuit of happiness" mirrors Locke’s "life, liberty, property."
B. Articles of Confederation
Powers: Declare war, treaties, coin money.
Weaknesses: No tax power, no executive/judiciary, unanimous state consent for amendments.
Shays’ Rebellion: Exposed inability to maintain order (no national army).
C. U.S. Constitution
Factions: Interest groups (controlled via large republic, per Federalist 10).
Great Compromise: Bicameral Congress (House by population, Senate equal).
3/5 Compromise: Slaves counted as 3/5 of a person for representation/taxes.
D. Constitutional Principles
Principles:
Popular sovereignty: Rule by people (voting).
Federalism: Power divided (national/state).
Checks & balances: Branches limit each other (e.g., veto).
E. Structure of the Constitution
Forbidden concepts:
Habeas corpus: Right to challenge detention.
Bills of attainder: Punishment without trial.
Ex post facto laws: Criminalizing past acts.
F. Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists
Federalists: Strong central gov’t (Federalist Papers).
Anti-Federalists: Feared tyranny; demanded Bill of Rights.
G. Foundational Documents
Key points:
Fed. 10: Factions controlled in large republic.
Fed. 51: Separation of powers/checks & balances.
Brutus I: Warned Constitution would erase state power.
III. American Federalism
A. Defining Federalism
Federalism: Power shared (national/state).
Founders’ goal: Prevent tyranny (division of power).
Dual vs. Cooperative:
Dual (layer cake): Clear division (pre-1930s).
Cooperative (marble cake): Shared responsibilities (New Deal).
B. Constitutional Powers
Powers:
Enumerated: Listed (e.g., declare war).
Implied: "Necessary & proper" (e.g., national bank).
Reserved: States (10th Amendment).
C. Fiscal Federalism
Fiscal federalism: Federal funding to states (e.g., grants).
"Carrot & stick": Grants (carrot) vs. mandates (stick).
Grants:
Categorical: Specific use (e.g., Medicaid).
Block: Broad use (e.g., welfare).
IV. Political Parties & Voting
A. Party Functions
Functions: Nominate candidates, mobilize voters, shape policy.
Partisanship: Strong party loyalty.
B. Third Parties
Why they form: Represent unmet issues (e.g., Green Party).
Limits: Winner-take-all elections, lack of funding.
C. Demographics
Voting trends:
Democrats: Non-white, women, young, college-educated.
Republicans: White, men, rural, older.
V. Elections
A. Electoral College
Framers’ concern: Fear of mob rule; protect small states.
Process: Electors = Senate + House seats; winner-take-all in most states.
B. Campaign Finance
Soft money: Unlimited party donations (limited by McCain-Feingold).
Citizens United: Allowed corporate/union spending (Super PACs).
VI. Legislative Branch
A. House vs. Senate
Differences:
House: 2-year terms, revenue bills start.
Senate: 6-year terms, approves treaties.
B. Committees
Types:
Standing: Permanent (e.g., Appropriations).
Conference: Reconciles House/Senate bills.
VII. Executive Branch
A. Presidential Powers
Expressed roles: Commander-in-chief, treaties, veto.
Executive orders: Direct bureaucracy (e.g., DACA).
B. Bureaucracy
Pros/cons:
Pros: Expertise, continuity.
Cons: Red tape, slow.
VIII. Judiciary
A. Supreme Court
Original jurisdiction: Cases involving states/ambassadors.
Stare decisis: Follow precedent (but can overturn, e.g., Brown v. Board).
B. Key Cases
Marshall Court: Established judicial review (Marbury v. Madison).
Warren Court: Expanded rights (Brown, Miranda).
IX. Civil Liberties/Rights
A. 14th Amendment
Equal protection: No state may deny rights (used in Brown).
Plessy v. Ferguson: "Separate but equal" (overturned by Brown).
B. Voting Rights
15th Amendment: Black suffrage; VRA 1965 banned literacy tests.
X. Key Amendments
13th: Abolished slavery.
14th: Equal protection/due process.
19th: Women’s suffrage.I. Constitutional Origins
A. The Nature of Governments
Purposes of government:
Maintain order (laws, security).
Provide public goods (roads, education).
Protect rights (life, liberty, property).
Promote equality (civil rights, welfare).
Direct vs. Indirect Democracy:
Direct: Citizens vote on policies (e.g., referendums).
Indirect: Representatives make decisions (e.g., U.S. Congress).
B. Theories of Democracy
Theories:
Pluralist: Power distributed among groups (e.g., interest groups).
Elite: Power held by wealthy/educated (e.g., corporate influence).
Hyperpluralism: Too many groups weaken government (gridlock).
Participatory: Broad citizen involvement (e.g., town halls).
C. Policy-Making Cycle
Primary agent of socialization: Family.
Secondary agents: Schools, media, peers, religion.
D. Enlightenment Philosophies
Hobbes vs. Locke:
Hobbes: Strong gov’t needed to control selfish humans (Leviathan).
Locke: Natural rights (life, liberty, property); gov’t by consent (Two Treatises).
II. American Documents
A. Declaration of Independence
Locke’s influence: "Life, liberty, pursuit of happiness" mirrors Locke’s "life, liberty, property."
B. Articles of Confederation
Powers: Declare war, treaties, coin money.
Weaknesses: No tax power, no executive/judiciary, unanimous state consent for amendments.
Shays’ Rebellion: Exposed inability to maintain order (no national army).
C. U.S. Constitution
Factions: Interest groups (controlled via large republic, per Federalist 10).
Great Compromise: Bicameral Congress (House by population, Senate equal).
3/5 Compromise: Slaves counted as 3/5 of a person for representation/taxes.
D. Constitutional Principles
Principles:
Popular sovereignty: Rule by people (voting).
Federalism: Power divided (national/state).
Checks & balances: Branches limit each other (e.g., veto).
E. Structure of the Constitution
Forbidden concepts:
Habeas corpus: Right to challenge detention.
Bills of attainder: Punishment without trial.
Ex post facto laws: Criminalizing past acts.
F. Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists
Federalists: Strong central gov’t (Federalist Papers).
Anti-Federalists: Feared tyranny; demanded Bill of Rights.
G. Foundational Documents
Key points:
Fed. 10: Factions controlled in large republic.
Fed. 51: Separation of powers/checks & balances.
Brutus I: Warned Constitution would erase state power.
III. American Federalism
A. Defining Federalism
Federalism: Power shared (national/state).
Founders’ goal: Prevent tyranny (division of power).
Dual vs. Cooperative:
Dual (layer cake): Clear division (pre-1930s).
Cooperative (marble cake): Shared responsibilities (New Deal).
B. Constitutional Powers
Powers:
Enumerated: Listed (e.g., declare war).
Implied: "Necessary & proper" (e.g., national bank).
Reserved: States (10th Amendment).
C. Fiscal Federalism
Fiscal federalism: Federal funding to states (e.g., grants).
"Carrot & stick": Grants (carrot) vs. mandates (stick).
Grants:
Categorical: Specific use (e.g., Medicaid).
Block: Broad use (e.g., welfare).
IV. Political Parties & Voting
A. Party Functions
Functions: Nominate candidates, mobilize voters, shape policy.
Partisanship: Strong party loyalty.
B. Third Parties
Why they form: Represent unmet issues (e.g., Green Party).
Limits: Winner-take-all elections, lack of funding.
C. Demographics
Voting trends:
Democrats: Non-white, women, young, college-educated.
Republicans: White, men, rural, older.
V. Elections
A. Electoral College
Framers’ concern: Fear of mob rule; protect small states.
Process: Electors = Senate + House seats; winner-take-all in most states.
B. Campaign Finance
Soft money: Unlimited party donations (limited by McCain-Feingold).
Citizens United: Allowed corporate/union spending (Super PACs).
VI. Legislative Branch
A. House vs. Senate
Differences:
House: 2-year terms, revenue bills start.
Senate: 6-year terms, approves treaties.
B. Committees
Types:
Standing: Permanent (e.g., Appropriations).
Conference: Reconciles House/Senate bills.
VII. Executive Branch
A. Presidential Powers
Expressed roles: Commander-in-chief, treaties, veto.
Executive orders: Direct bureaucracy (e.g., DACA).
B. Bureaucracy
Pros/cons:
Pros: Expertise, continuity.
Cons: Red tape, slow.
VIII. Judiciary
A. Supreme Court
Original jurisdiction: Cases involving states/ambassadors.
Stare decisis: Follow precedent (but can overturn, e.g., Brown v. Board).
B. Key Cases
Marshall Court: Established judicial review (Marbury v. Madison).
Warren Court: Expanded rights (Brown, Miranda).
IX. Civil Liberties/Rights
A. 14th Amendment
Equal protection: No state may deny rights (used in Brown).
Plessy v. Ferguson: "Separate but equal" (overturned by Brown).
B. Voting Rights
15th Amendment: Black suffrage; VRA 1965 banned literacy tests.
X. Key Amendments
13th: Abolished slavery.
14th: Equal protection/due process.
19th: Women’s suffrage.