Intro Psych Study
The importance of understanding human behavior and mental processes in various contexts, such as social, cultural, and biological frameworks.
Key theories in psychology including behaviorism, cognitive psychology, and humanistic psychology.
- What is Psychology?
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior, encompassing a wide range of topics from emotions and cognition to social interactions and mental health.
- What is critical thinking? What does it entail?
Systematically evaluating information to reach conclusions based on the evidence presented
3 steps of critical thinking process?
Is the source reliable/believable?
Is there strong evidence for the claim?
Do other believable sources agree about the claim?
CONTEMPORARY SCHOOL OF THOUGHTS
psychoanalytic/psychodynamic theory
Focuses on the influence of unconscious desires and conflicts on behavior, emphasizing the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping personality.
Behaviorism
Focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they can be learned or unlearned through interaction with the environment, highlighting the role of reinforcement and punishment.
Gestalt
Emphasizes the idea that the whole of perception is greater than the sum of its parts, advocating for the study of objects in context rather than in isolation.
Humanistic
Promotes personal growth and self-actualization, focusing on individual experiences and the inherent potential for self-improvement.
Cognitive
Explores mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving, emphasizing how these processes influence perception and behavior.
Hypothesis
An attempt to answer a theory’s questions and consists of a testable prediction that should be observed if the theory is correct
Operational Definition
Qualify (describe) and Quantify (measure) variables so that they can be understood objectively. | ex.
Experiments and Methods
Five Steps of scientific method
Formulate theory
Develop a testable hypothesis
Test with research method
Analyze data
Share the results and conduct more research
Institutional Review Boards are groups of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure that it meets the accepted standards of science & provides emotional well-being and physical safety for participants
Three descriptive methods;
case studies- in depth investigation of one or a few people or an org.
Observational studies- researcher watches participants in natural environment or laboratory
self-reports- use surveys, questionaires, or interviews to gather information directly from participants
Correlational method- relationship between two or more variables which allows researchers to determine if changes in one variable are associated with changes in another variable, though it does not imply causation.
A directionality problem exists when researchers are uncertain which variable, caused the other
A third variable problem exists when researchers are uncertain if a cause should be attributed to a third variable
Independent variables are those that are manipulated by researchers, while dependent variables are the outcomes that are measured to see if they are affected by changes in the independent variables.
Control group (baseline group) is a group of participants that is not exposed to the experimental treatment and is used for comparison with the experimental group to help isolate the effect of the independent variable.
Experimental Group: 1 or more treatment groups of participants who receive the intervention of the independent variable being investigated
A random sample fairly represents the population by allowing each member of the population an equal chance of being included
A random assignment allocates participants to either the control or experimental groups in a way that minimizes pre-existing differences between those groups, further enhancing the validity of the study.
Neuroscience and Biological Foundations
Central nervous system consists of the brain & spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system enables nerves to connect the central nervous system to the skin, muscles and organs, & glands
Somatic nervous system: skin, muscles, & joints send signals to the spinal cord & brain & vice- versa
Autonomic nervous system: Glands & internal organs send signals to the spinal cord & brain & vice versa
Sympathetic nervous system(SNS): triggers “fight or flight” responses, increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and inhibiting digestion for action.
Parasympathetic nervous system(SNS): initiates “rest” and “digest" responses, promoting relaxation, decreasing heart rate, constricting pupils, and stimulating digestion to conserve energy.
Main Parts of typical neuron
Cell body (soma): Contains the nucleus and organelles, responsible for maintaining the cell's health and functionality.
Dendrites: Branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons and transmit them to the cell body.
Axon: Long, thin projection that transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body towards other neurons or muscles.
Terminal buttons: Parts of the neuron at the end of the axon that release chemical signals from the neuron into the synapse. (aka terminal buds, synaptic knobs, axon buds)
Synapse(synaptic cleft, synaptic gap): The site of the communication between neurons through neurotransmitters.
Myelin Sheath: a protective, fatty & protein rich insulating layer wrapped around nerve cell axons
How do neurons communicate? The movement of ions across the membrane enables neurons to communicate
Resting and Action Potential
Resting Potential: when the electrical charge inside the neuron is slightly more negative than the electrical negative outside
Action Potential: The neural impulse that travels along the axon and then causes the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse.
Neurotransmitters- Chemical substances that carry signals from one neuron to another
Endocrine System is a communication system and uses hormones to influence thoughts and actions. Hormones travel through the bloodstream to targeted tissues; the tissues are later influenced by the hormones.
Plasticity: The brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experience, learning, or injury, allowing for the reorganization of synaptic connections.
HindBrain Functions
a). Medulla: breathing, heart rate, other survival mechanisms
b.) Pons: Sleep, arousal, left-right body movement coordination
c). Cerebellum: regulates balance, coordination, and fine motor skills.
MidBrain Functions
a). Substantia nigra: Initiates voluntary motor activities
ForeBrain Funct.
a). Subcortical structures
i). thalamus: sensory info (except smell)
ii). hypothalamus: regulation of body functions (for ex. sleep, temp) & motivation (ex. hunger, thirst, sex)
iii). amygdala: association of emotions with experiences
iv). hippocampus: formation of new memories
b). Cerebral Cortex ( cortical structures)
i). occipital lobe: vision (1. primary visual cortex)
ii). Parietal lobe: touch, spatial information (1. primary somatosensory cortex)
iii). temporal lobe: hearing, language, memory (1. primary auditory cortex)
iv). Frontal lobe: reasoning, planning, problem-solving, and movement (1. primary motor cortex-motor acts) (2. prefrontal cortex- attention, self-control, social process)
Corpus callosum: a massive bridge consisting of millions of axons.
Five DOMAINS of psych
Biology: The connection of the effects of the brain and body’s affect on thoughts, feelings, & actions
Cognitive: Mental activities’ affects on thoughts, feelings, & actions
Developmental: Studies the psychological growth and changes that occur throughout a person's life. Birth-old age in terms of thoughts, feelings, actions
Social: Investigates how individuals are influenced by the social environment and the presence of others.
Mental and Physical health: What affects your mental & physical health & how can you develop healthy behaviors?
Sensation and Perception
What is sensation - is the sense organs’ detection of external physical stimulus & the transmission of information about this stimulus to the brain
What is perception - the processing, organization, & interpretation of sensory information in the brain; these processes result in an internal neural representation of the physical stimulus
Transduction a process by which sensory receptors change physical stimuli into signals that are eventually sent to the brain.
Absolute Threshold the smallest amount of physical stimulation required to detect a sensory input half of the time it is present.
ex: Hearing a watch tik 20 ft away
Difference Threshold the minimum difference in physical stimulation required to detect a difference between sensory inputs
Sensory adaptation a decrease in sensitivity to a constant level of stimulation
Kinesthetic sense tells us how our body and limbs are positioned in space.
Vestibular sense the sense that provides our brain with information about motion, head position, and spatial orientation through the inner ear.
Monocular depth perception that are available to each eye alone.
Binocular we use both eyes to percieve depth through binocular disparity, where each retina has a slightly different view of the world
Learning
The main difference is that classical conditioning involves associating an involuntary, reflexive response with anew stimulus, while operant conditioning associates a voluntary behavior with a consequence
Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (US) - a stimulus that naturally elicits a response without any prior learning(food)
Unconditioned Response(UR)- a response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex (salivation)
Neutral Stimulus- anything not previously associated with the unconditioned response(metronome)
Conditioned Stimulus(CS)- A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place
Conditioned Response (CR)- A response to a conditioned stimulus a response that has been learned
ex. Metronome alone (CS), without food, makes dog salivate
Extinction a process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus
Spontaneous recovery is process in which a previously extinguished response reemerges after the conditioned stimulus is presented again
Stimulus generalization: Learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response.
Stimulus discrimination: A differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Shaping is the powerful process of reinforcing the behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior.
Positive reinforcement: is the addition of a stimulus to increase the probability of a repeated behavior also called a reward. ex. working harder after receiving a pay raise.
Negative reinforcement: the removal of a stimulus to increase the probability. ex. taking a pill to alleviate pain.
Both positive & negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of a given behavior
Both reduce the likeliness that a behavior will be repeated
primary reinforces are necessary for survival whiles secondary reinforce are events or objects that serve as reinforcers but don’t satisfy biological needs
Observational learning: The acquistion or modification of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior
Memory
Sensory is milliseconds; its the first stage of memory and is like a buffer to stimuli
Short term memory usually lasts a few seconds (20); holds small amounts of info
Long term memory usually lasts permanently potentially from days to a lifetime
According to George Miller we can hold up to 7 items in our short term memory
Chunking is using working memory to organize information into meaningful units to make it memorable
Maintenance rehearsal is using working memory to process information through repetition based on how it sounds(provides only shallow recall)
Elaborative rehearsal using working memory processes to think about how new information relates to ourselves or our prior knowledge (deeper encoding;long term)
3 processes of memory
encoding- processing of info so that it can be stored
storage: the retention of encoded representations over time\
retrieval: the act of recalling or remembering stored information when it is needed
selective attention direct mental resources to process relevant info and leaving the irrelevant info behind
Primacy; at the beginning of the list
Recency; better memory for more recent items on the list at the end
Semantic - explicit memory that includes knowledge about the world
Episodic- personal experiences (explicit)
Implicit- memory that involves unconscious retrieval of information, such as skills and habits, without awareness of recollection.
Explicit - memory that involves conscious recollection of facts and events, allowing us to actively recall previous experiences and information.
Procedural -implicit( motor skills and behavioral habits)
Prospective- memory that involves remembering to perform actions in the future, such as appointments or tasks that need to be completed at a later date.
Context dependent memory is the environment provides cues to help access the information stored by the context in which the person is in that moment
Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories after the onset of the condition, affecting the ability to learn and retain information.
Retrograde amnesia is characterized by the loss of pre-existing memories, often occurring after a traumatic event, where individuals may struggle to recall information or experiences that were formed before the onset of the amnesia.
What are some reasons we forget?
a). Misattribution- occurs when we misremember the time, so that they become consistent with the current beliefs and attitudes
b). Suggestibility- of memories in long term storage creates problems for one of the most powerful forms of evidence in our justice system: the eyewitness account
c). Blocking- refers to the temporary inability to retrieve specific information, often occurs because of the interference of words that are similar in some way, such as in sound or meaning and that repeatedly experienced.
LifeSpan Development
3 Domains of Human Life
Physical; encompasses the biological changes that occur throughout a person's life, including growth, motor skills, and physical health.
Cognitive; involves the mental processes associated with attention, memory, language, problem-solving, and decision-making that develop and change over time.
Social; refers to the ways in which individuals interact with others and form relationships, including the development of social skills, emotional understanding, and cultural influences throughout different life stages.
Teratogen is the environmental substances that can harm prenatal development (drugs and alcohol)
Prenatal Development
Germinal period: the union of egg & sperm forms a zygote that implants in the wall of the uterus by the end of the two weeks
Embryonic period: This stage, occurring from the end of the 2nd-8th week after fertilization, involves rapid cell division and differentiation, where the organs develop in the embryo.]
Fetal period: Beginning around the 9th week and lasting until birth, this stage is characterized by further growth and maturation of organs
Attachment is strong connection formed by infants in regards to their caretakers( Harlow’s Monkey Experiment)
Baby Monkey preferred mother that was clothed( provides comfort) over mother that had food to feed the baby monkey
Ainsworth strange situation test
Secure attachment is the distress that comes upon the child once separated from their caregiver, quickly comforted upon the caretakers’ return
Ambivalent child is inconsolably upset when caregiver leaves and upon return displays rejection and proximity
Avoidant attachment is characterized by the child minimizing contact with the caregiver, showing little distress upon separation and often avoiding the caregiver upon return.
Theory of Mind is the capacity to understand that other people have minds & intentions
4 Stages of Cognitive Dev (Piaget)
Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to approximately 2 years; infants learn about the world through their senses and actions.
Object Permanence is realizing things still exist even when gone
Preoperational Stage: Ages 2 to 7; characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and an inability to perform operations mentally.
Learns to use language & rep objects by images and words
classifies objects by a single feature
thinking is not logical but intuitive
Concrete Operational Stage: Ages 7 to 12; children begin to think logically about concrete events and understand the concept of conservation of numbers, mass, volume, and weight
Clasiffies objects by multiple features
Formal Operational Stage: Ages 12 and up; development of abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking.
Erikson’s 8 stages of psychosocial development
Infancy (0-2)- Trust vs. Mistrust: infants learn to trust their caregivers for basic needs such as food, comfort, and affection, which lays the foundation for future relationships.
Toddler (2-3)- Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt: toddlers begin to assert their independence by making choices and exploring their environment, leading to a sense of autonomy and self-control, while excessive criticism can foster feelings of shame and doubt in their abilities.
Preschool (4-6)- initiative vs guilt : children begin to assert control and power over their environment through directing play and other social interactions, helping them develop a sense of initiative.
Childhood (7-12)- Industry vs Inferiority: children focus on mastering skills and achieving competence in academic and social settings, leading to feelings of pride and accomplishment, while failure or lack of support may result in feelings of inferiority.
Adolescence(13-19)- Identity vs role confusion: teenagers explore different identities, beliefs, and values, leading to a cohesive sense of self; however, confusion and uncertainty about their role in society can result in identity crises if they are not able to navigate this exploration successfully.
Young Adulthood(20s)- Intimacy vs isolation: individuals seek to form meaningful relationships and establish deep connections with others, which fosters intimacy and companionship; however, failure to establish these bonds may lead to feelings of isolation and loneliness.
Middle Adulthood(30s/40s/50s)- Generativity vs stagnation:adults strive to leave a positive legacy and contribute to society through meaningful work and nurturing the next generation, fostering a sense of generativity; however, failure to find a sense of purpose may lead to feelings of stagnation and unfulfillment.
Old Age(60s and beyond)- Integrity vs despair: individuals reflect on their lives and assess their achievements, leading to feelings of integrity and fulfillment if they view their lives positively; however, if they have regrets or feel dissatisfied with their past, it may result in despair and a sense of missed opportunities.
Personality
Psychoanalytic (Psychodynamic: Personality is based on unconscious wishes that create conflict between the id, ego, superego.
Humanistic: Personality is based on the tendency to fulfill potential through personal growth
Social-Cognitive: Personality is based on how a person thinks
Trait-approaches: Personality can be described by the individual’s characteristics
Freud’s psychodynamic theory
basic premises are unconscious forces such as wishes, desires, and hidden memories, determine behavior and influence personality.
Unique Interactions among the id, superego, ego produce individual differences in personality.
Id; pleasure
Superego;morality
ego;reality
Defense mechanisms unconscious ways to reduce anxiety
Self- actualization reaching full potential
Locus of Control
internal: control yourself
external: controlled by outside forces
Bandura
Reciprocal determinism: behavior, person and environment interact.
learning occurs in a social context through dynamic, reciprocal interactions between people, their behavior, and the environment
Big Five theory of personality (OCEAN)
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Self-report tests; questionaires
Projective; ambiguous images