Biology 50A Lab Manual Study Notes

RIVERSIDE CITY COLLEGE BIOLOGY 50A LAB MANUAL ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

• Lab 1: Medical Terminology

• Lab 2: Microscopy

• Lab 3: Measurements

• Lab 4: The Cell

• Lab 5: Cell Transport

• Lab 6: Epithelial Tissues

• Lab 7: Connective Tissues Proper

• Lab 8: Cartilage and Bone Connective Tissue

• Lab 9: The Integument

• Lab 10: The Bones and Skeletal Tissues

• Lab 11: The Skeleton

• Lab 12: The Muscular System

• Lab 13: Neurons

• Lab 14: Neurophysiology

• Lab 15: The Spinal Cord and Tracts

• Lab 16: The Brain

• Lab 17: Sagittal Section of the Brain

Lab 1: Medical Terminology

OBJECTIVE

• To use the appropriate terms/names to describe body regions, planes of section, body regions, cavities, and abdominal regions.

PART A—BODY REGIONS

• Learn the appropriate anatomical term for each body region:

  • Cephalic

  • Manus

  • Frontal

  • Metacarpal

  • Orbital

  • Palmar

  • Nasal

  • Pollex

  • Buccal

  • Digital

  • Oral

  • Optic

  • Lower limb

  • Mental

  • Coxal

  • Occipital

  • Femoral

  • Patellar

  • Cervical

  • Popliteal

  • Crural

  • Thoracic

  • Sural

  • Sternal

  • Fibular

  • Axillary

  • Mammary

  • Pedal

  • Tarsal

  • Abdominal

  • Calcaneal

  • Umbilical

  • Metatarsal

  • Hallux

  • Pelvic

  • Digital

  • Inguinal

  • Planter

  • Pubic

  • Back

  • Upper Limb

  • Scapular

  • Acromial

  • Vertebral

  • Brachial

  • Lumbar

  • Antecubital

  • Sacral

  • Antebrachial

  • Gluteal

  • Carpal

  • Perineal

PART B—BODY CAVITIES

• Locate each cavity using models and diagrams. List 1-2 major organs found in each cavity in the table below:

  • Thoracic

  • a. Pleural cavities

  • b. Mediastinum

  • c. Pericardial cavity

  • Abdominal cavity

  • Pelvic cavity

  • Cranial cavity

  • Vertebral (spinal) cavity

PART C—ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS

• List 1-2 major organs found in each region using the table:

  • Epigastric

  • Umbilical

  • Hypogastric

  • Right hypochondriac

  • Left hypochondriac

  • Right lumbar

  • Left lumbar

  • Right inguinal (iliac)

  • Left inguinal (iliac)

PART D—BODY PLANES

• Label the body planes.

PART E—QUESTIONS

1. A patient experiences pain or injury to the right hypochondriac region. Which organ is most likely to be affected?

2. Severe upset stomach often presents as pain in the _ region.

3. The urinary bladder is found in the _ region.

4. A deep stab wound in the umbilical region would most likely damage what organs?

5. To view the lateral aspect of the heart you would need to make a cut or plane of section.

6. What would you call the section named in question 6 above when it is through the midline? If it were lateral to the midline?

7. Through what plane would one make a cut to visualize all of these organs simultaneously: both lungs, the heart, spinal cord, and ribs?

8. To view the anterior surface of both kidneys you would make a cut through what plane?

PART F—DIRECTIONAL TERMS

• Use directional terms to label the diagrams:

  • SUPERIOR

  • ANTERIOR

  • LATERAL

  • POSTERIOR

  • MEDIAL

  • INFERIOR

  • DISTAL

  • PROXIMAL

  • DEEP

PART G—PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

• A large part of anatomy and physiology is vocabulary; therefore, it is helpful to learn the meaning of as many prefixes and suffixes as possible.

• PREFIX/SUFFIX Definitions:

  • brachi:

  • epi:

  • endo:

  • peri:

  • hypo:

  • hyper:

  • chondr:

  • ceps, cephal:

  • cardio:

  • neuro: nerve or NS

  • pleur: side or pleura

  • para: near; alongside; beside

  • a/an/anti: without; not; against

  • hemi: half; partial

Lab 2: Microscopy

PART A—PARTS OF THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

OBJECTIVES

• Name and identify the major parts of the microscope.

• State the function of each microscope part.

• Demonstrate proper use of the microscope.

• Demonstrate proper care and storage of the microscope.

• Determine the size of the field of vision and use it to estimate the size of an object on the microscope.

• Prepare a tissue wet mount and view it on the microscope.

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE DETAILS

• The microscope you will be using is a compound microscope which utilizes two lenses or lens systems to enlarge the object being viewed. The ocular or eyepiece is the lens near your eye while the objective is the lens located on the revolving nosepiece. Your microscope has two oculars, or binocular vision. The object is first magnified by the ocular and then once again by the objective. Total magnification of the object is calculated by multiplying the magnification of the ocular times the objective. Your microscope is parfocal, which means you should not have to refocus each time you change the objective. Once the object is in focus, you should not need to use the coarse adjustment again when you change the magnification.

PART B—PROPER USE OF THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

1. Before using your microscope, clean the ocular and objective lenses using the lens paper and lens cleaner.

2. Place the slide under the stage clips and adjust the slide into position. Turn the revolving nosepiece until the low-power objective clicks into place. Use the coarse adjustment to move the stage as close as possible to the objective without hitting the slide (do this while you are watching and not while you are looking through the ocular!).

3. Look through the oculars. Adjust the lighting as needed by using the diaphragm lever below the stage.

4. While looking through the oculars, use the coarse adjustment knob to slowly move the stage down until the object comes into focus. Complete focusing with the fine adjustment knob.

5. If the high-power objective is needed, carefully swing the objective into position once the microscope has been focused on low power. Use only the fine adjustment to focus on the object.

6. After using the microscope, remove the slide, rotate the nosepiece until the lowest power objective is in position, and crank the coarse adjustment knob to lower the stage away from the objectives.

7. Clean the stage and return it to the cabinet.

QUESTIONS

1. How do you determine total magnification when using the 4X, 10X and 40X objectives with a 10X ocular? Give the total magnification for each.

2. Why don’t you have to use coarse adjustment when focusing on high power?

3. If you are viewing an object and it appears faint and washed out, what should you do to make the object more visible?

4. Define resolution.

PART C—PRACTICE USING THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

1. Begin by using the prepared slide of the Letter ‘e’. Focus it using the 4X objective and note the position of the letter in the field of vision.

2. Try a prepared slide with a smaller object such as the sperm slide. Focus it first on low power and then on high power, adjusting the light as necessary.

3. Draw what you see on high power.

PART D—CHEEK CELL WET MOUNT

1. Place a small drop of Methylene blue on a clean slide.

2. Lightly scrape the inner surface of your cheek using a toothpick and swirl it in the methylene blue.

3. Carefully place a coverslip on the slide at a 45-degree angle to prevent bubbles.

4. Place a drop of distilled water along one edge and use a KimWipe to draw out the stain and water. The background should be clear, and the cells will remain blue from the stain.

5. Focus the slide on low power and find a center cell to view it on high power.

6. When done, dispose of the coverslip and slide properly.

PART G—PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

• Look up the prefixes or suffixes in your text. (examples from part A)

Lab 3: Measurements

OBJECTIVE

• To become familiar with basic measurements and units used in the sciences.

• The metric system is utilized for measurements; it is based on units of ten for easy conversion.

A. LENGTH

• The metric base unit for length is the meter. Learn the relationships of related units:

  • Meter (m)

  • Centimeter (cm)

  • Millimeter (mm)

  • Micrometer/micron (µm)

  • Nanometer (nm)

  • Angstrom (Å)

• Conversion examples:
  $345 cm = 3450 mm$
  $160 km = 160000 m$
  $2500 µm = 2.5 mm$
  $11 cm = 110000 nm$
  $1 mm = 1000 m$
  $200 nm = 0.2 mm$
  $1 Å = 0.1 nm$

B. VOLUME

• The metric base unit for volume is the liter (L), slightly more than a quart. Approximate comparisons:

  • (1) can of soda = 360 mL

  • (1) fluid ounce = 30 mL (cc)

• Conversion examples: $1 L = 1000 mL$ $5 oz = 150 mL$ $5 sodas = 1800 mL$

  • $1 L of medicine will make how many 5 mL injections? = 200 injections$

C. MASS

• Mass is the amount of matter in an object. The unit of mass is the gram.

  • Doses of medicine are in milligrams or micrograms, while body weight is measured in kilograms.

  • $1 kg = 2.205 lbs$

  • $1 lb = 0.4536 kg$

• Conversion examples:

  • $300 g = 300000 mg$

  • $4000 µg = 4 mg$

  • $520 g = 520000 mg$

  • $4250 µg = 4.25 g$

  • Mr. Grundy weighs 195 lbs. He receives a dose of medicine at 2 mg/kg body weight. How much medicine does he receive?

    • Calculation: $rac{195 ext{ lbs}}{2.205 ext{ lbs/kg}} imes 2 ext{ mg/kg} = 177.1 mg$

PART D—USING MEASUREMENTS

• You can use metric measurements to estimate the size of an object under the microscope. Use a metric ruler to measure field of vision for each objective lens:

• Field of view measurements might be:

  • 4X = X mm

  • 10X = Y mm

  • 40X = Z mm

PRACTICE PROBLEM

• To find the length of one cell in the field of vision, estimate how many cells fit across the field. If 6 cells fit across, use the formula:
  ext{Diameter of field} igg/ ext{# of cells visible} = ext{Size of cell}

• Solve for height using the same method.

QUESTIONS

1. 10 cells visible across the width of the field using the 4X objective; calculate dimensions in mm and µm.

   • (mm): _

   • (µ): _

Lab 4: The Cell

PART A—THE STRUCTURE OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

OBJECTIVE

• Describe the plasma membrane structure and relate to membrane functions.

• Label the diagram of the cell membrane.

1. Describe 2 functions of structure #1 in the diagram.

2. Give two possible functions for proteins such as structure #3.

3. Functions of structure #4 in the diagram.

PART B—THE CELL: ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTION

OBJECTIVE

• Name and identify organelles found within a cell.

• Study the models and charts in your lab.

• Label the diagram on the following page and fill in the major function of each organelle as indicated.

• Cells differ in structure to accommodate various functions.

ORGANELLES AND FUNCTIONS:

• CYTOPLASM: Contains cytosol.

• MITOCHONDRIA: Site of ATP production.

• ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: System of membrane-bound organelles covered with ribosomes, involved in protein synthesis.

• SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: System of membrane-bound organelles, involved in lipid synthesis.

• GOLGI APPARATUS: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for secretion.

• LYSOSOMES: Membranous sacs containing digestive enzymes for breakdown of waste.

• PEROXISOMES: Membranous sacs containing enzymes for breaking down fatty acids.

• CYTOSKELETON: Network of protein filaments that provide structure and transport within the cell.

• NUCLEUS: Control center of the cell, contains genetic material.

QUESTIONS

1. What are some functions of each organelle? List specific examples.

Lab 5: Membrane Transport

OBJECTIVES

• Identify, demonstrate, and explain various processes utilized for transport of substances in the cell.

• Understand and explain factors influencing movement of substances into and out of the cell.

• Understand and explain various tonicities and effects on the cell.

DIFFUSION

• Defined as movement of solute from high to low concentration.

OSMOSIS IN POTATO CELLS

1. Fill one beaker with distilled water and another with 10% NaCl.

2. Make six plugs of potato (three in distilled water, three in 10% NaCl).

3. Weigh the potato plugs before soaking.

4. After 30 minutes, remove the plugs and observe texture, color, and flexibility.

5. Record weight before and after soaking.

QUESTIONS

1. Which group of plugs gained weight? Explain.

2. Which group lost weight?

3. What type of solution were the plugs in?

Lab 6: Epithelial Tissues

OBJECTIVES

• Identify each tissue type.

• Identify associated structures and locations.

• Know the function of each tissue type.

BASIC TISSUE TYPES

1. Epithelial (ET)

2. Connective (CT)

3. Muscle (MT)

4. Nervous (NT)

CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIUM

• Named by shape:

  • Squamous

  • Cuboidal

  • Columnar

• Named by number of layers:

  • Simple

  • Stratified

SPECIFIC EPITHELIAL TISSUE TYPES

• Simple squamous

• Simple cuboidal

• Simple columnar

• Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

• Stratified squamous

• Transitional

QUESTIONS

1. What are goblet cells?

2. What is the function of cilia?

3. What is the difference between simple and stratified epithelial tissues?

Lab 7: Connective Tissues Proper

OBJECTIVES

• Identify each connective tissue type.

• Identify structures and locations associated with connective tissues.

COMPONENTS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Connective tissues consist of ground substance, fibers, and cells.

• Extracellular matrix formed by ground substance and fibers.

TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES PROPER

• Loose Connective tissues:

  • Areolar CT

  • Adipose CT

  • Reticular CT

• Dense Connective tissues:

  • Regular CT

  • Irregular CT

  • Elastic CT

QUESTIONS

1. Identify the types of fibers present.

2. What characterizes each connective tissue?

Lab 8: Cartilage, Bone, and Blood Connective Tissue

OBJECTIVES

• Identify tissue types and associated structures, locations, and functions.

CARTILAGE

• Composed of ground substance, cells, and fibers.

• Tough yet flexible, avascular with no innervation, largely water.

• Types of cartilage include hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage.

BONE

• Composed of ground substances, cells, and fibers, and inorganic calcium salts.

• Rigid and richly vascularized with osteoblasts and osteocytes.

BLOOD

• Fluid connective tissue with cells suspended in plasma.

• Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

QUESTIONS

1. What are lacunae in cartilage?

2. What are the differences in composition between cartilage and bone?

Lab 9: The Integument

OBJECTIVES

• Learn and understand basic skin structure, layers, important structures, and functions.

THE INTEGUMENT

1. Epidermis layers including stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, and corneum.

2. Dermis layers including papillary (with dermal papillae and tactile corpuscles) and reticular (with dense irregular connective tissue, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and Pacinian corpuscles).

3. Hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue) with adipose tissue and blood vessels.

QUESTIONS

1. What are the three layers of skin?

2. What structures are responsible for fingerprints?

Lab 10: The Bones and Skeletal Tissues

OBJECTIVE

• Learn structure and function of bone and developmental stages.

BONE DEFINITIONS

1. Diaphysis: main shaft of bone.

2. Epiphysis: ends of bone.

3. Spongy (cancellous) bone: lighter, porous.

4. Compact bone: dense and hard.

5. Medullary cavity: central cavity containing marrow.

6. Red/Yellow marrow: hematopoiesis in red, fat storage in yellow.

QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between bone formation types.

2. List differences between cartilage and bone.

Lab 11: The Skeleton

OBJECTIVE

• Identify bones of axial and appendicular skeleton.

THE AXIAL SKELETON

• Skull bones including frontal, parietal, and occipital.

• Identify sutures such as sagittal, coronal, squamous, and lambdoid.

QUESTIONS

1. What are the functions of the different bones?

2. How are the ribs attached to the sternum?

Lab 12: The Muscular System

OBJECTIVE

• Histology and physiology of skeletal muscle contraction.

• Location, points of attachment, and actions of major skeletal muscles.

MUSCLE TISSUE TYPES

1. Skeletal: voluntary, striated.

2. Cardiac: involuntary, striated with intercalated discs.

3. Smooth: involuntary, non-striated.

MAJOR SKELETAL MUSCLES

• Include trapezius, deltoid, biceps brachii, etc.

QUESTIONS

1. What involves muscle contraction?

2. What is the action associated with each muscle?

Lab 13: Neurons

OBJECTIVE

• Structural components of neurons and their functional roles.

NEURON STRUCTURE

1. Cell body: contains nucleus.

2. Dendrite: receive signals.

3. Axon: transmit signals.

4. Myelin: insulation around a nerve fiber.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the role of neuroglial cells?

Lab 14: Neurophysiology

OBJECTIVE

• Understand neuron physiology, action potentials, and graded potentials.

NEURON PHYSIOLOGY

• Terminate action potential and graded potentials, identify differences.

QUESTIONS

1. What causes depolarization and what is the role of ions?

2. What is the refractory period?

Lab 15: The Spinal Cord and Tracts

OBJECTIVE

• Gross and microscopic structure of spinal cord and tracts.

SPINAL CORD QUESTIONS

1. Layers: Dura mater, Arachnoid, Pia mater.

2. What is the function of each layer?

Lab 16: Brain Anatomy

OBJECTIVE

• Learn anatomical structure of brain regions.

FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN STRUCTURES

1. Cerebrum: higher brain functions including thought and action.

2. Brainstem: controls basic body functions such as heart rate and breathing.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the role of the thalamus?

2. How is the cortex structured?

Lab 17: Sagittal Section of the Brain

OBJECTIVE

• Internal structures of the brain and their functions.

QUESTIONS

1. What is the corpus callosum?

2. What is the function of basal nuclei?