Nutrition HOSA Test

Part 1: Food Habits - A Lifestyle Choice

Chapter 1 = Making Wellness a Lifestyle

  • Wellness: state of good health

  • Quality of life: persons satisfaction with their looks, lifestyle, and responses to events

  • Premature death: death occurs due to lifestyle behaviors leading to fatal accident or formation of an avoidable disease

  • Optimum health: state of wellness characterized by peak physical, mental, and social well being

  • Wellness continuum is the overall state of health most of the time (wellness point)

  • Physical health: fitness of body

    • Not enough sleep reduces energy for exercising

    • Eating too much or too fact can upset stomach

    • Lack of exercise, poor sanitation, and reckless actions keep body at low performance level

    • Stress: inner agitation you feel in response to change

  • Mental health: the way you feel about yourself

    • People with good mental health like themselves, have positive attitudes, and keep a balance in all aspects of their lives

    • Irrational fears, anxiety and depression are signs of mental health problems

    • Talk with someone you trust

  • Social health: the way you get along with other people

    • Learning how to resolve conflicts with others is an important skill that can help you achieve and maintain good social health

    • Build social skills

    • Good communication to resolve conflicts

  • Holistic medicine: approach to health care that focuses on all 3 aspects of patient care (overall wellness)

  • Habits are hard to change once established

  • Risk factor: behavior that influences a person's chance of being injured/diseased

    • Lifestyle habits

    • Environmental conditions

    • Hereditary factors

  • Heart disease, cancer, and stroke are the three major causes of death among adults in the U.S.

    • Lifestyle choices account for ½ the factors of these diseases 

      • Smoking

      • Food

      • Stress Management

      • Exercise

  • About ⅕ of risk factors that contribute to death are poor environmental quality

    • The state of the physical world around you

  • Inadequate health care is another risk factor

    • Failure to get a correct diagnosis (identification of disease)

  • 25% of risk factors causing death are hereditary (inherited genes - can’t control)

  • Diet is a lifestyle choice that can control some risk factors for diseases

    • Diet: all foods and beverages you consumes

  • Health experts recommend

    • 3 meals a day

    • Supply body with nutrients to grow

    • 8-9 hours of sleep per night

    • Maintain healthy weight

    • 60 minutes exercise most days of week

    • No smoking

    • Limit alcohol

    • No drugs

  • Many people fail to realize how addictive poor health habits are

  • Peer pressure: influence other people have on your own behavior

  • Nutrition: sum of the processes by which a person takes in and uses food substance

  • Nutrients are the basic components of food that nourish the body (over 45 nutrients needed in the diet ) COULD HAVE CHANGED

  • Theory is not a fact

  • About ⅓ of youth are overweight or obese COULD HAVE CHANGED

  • About 65%  of US adults are overweight and 30 =% are obese

  • About ⅓ of US eat an inadequate diet

  • Life expectancy: the average length of life of people living in the same environment

Chapter 2 = Factors Affecting Food Choices

  • Cultural, historical, religious and ethnic influences all impact the food you eat

  • Family, friends, and social status effect what and when you eat

  • Media and commercials also affect your diet

  • Emotions play a major role in how you see certain foods

  • Using food as a reward or punishment is never good

  • Your genes are partially responsible for what foods you like

  • People always prefer what is familiar to them

  • Important resources are needed to grow crops (agriculture)

    • Fertile soil

    • Adequate water supply

    • Favorable climate

    • Technical knowledge

    • Human energy

  • Technology has helped speed up food production, processing, and transportation

    • Food biotechnology: uses prior knowledge to develop plants and animals with specific desirable traits while eliminating unwanted traits

      • Increases speed and accuracy

    • Aseptic packaging: preserves quality and extends shelf life of food

      • Bacteria cannot grow → so doesn’t need refrigeration

  • Economics has a lot to do with food availability

  • Politics affect the quality and quantity of available food

  • Nutrition misinformation is very common

Chapter 3 = How Nutrients Become You

  • Energy is released and nutrients are used to help build, repair, and maintain body cells, then your body discards the waste products

  • Nutrients from you food are the main source of fuel and building materials

  • 6 nutrients groups

    • Carbohydrates

    • Fats

    • Proteins

    • Vitamins

    • Minerals

    • Water

  • 5 of the nutrient groups are compounds (excluding minerals)

  • 1 of the nutrient groups are elements (only minerals)

  • 25 chemical elements involved in health and nutrition including:

    • Oxygen

    • Hydrogen

    • Carbon

    • Nitrogen

    • Sulfur

    • Cobalt

  • Essential nutrients from food are used to:

    • Build and repair body tissues

      • Your body needs adequate amounts of nutrients to make new cells

      • Periods of rapid growth require adequate nutrition to grow properly

    • Regulate all body processes

      • Digestion, absorption, and metabolism rely on proper nutrients

    • Provide energy

      • Carbs and fats are main nutrients used for energy (some protein)

      • Other nutrients used to regulate the release of the energy

  • The energy value of food is measured in units called:

    • Kilocalories: the amount of heat needed to raise one kilogram of water one degree Celsius

      • A kilocalorie is 1,000 times larger than a calorie unit

    • Each gram of carbohydrate supplies the body with 4 calories of energy

    • Fats provide 9 calories per gram

    • Proteins provide 4 calories per gram

    • Water, vitamins and minerals do not yield energy (no caloric content)

    • The more calories in food → the more energy it provides

    • Alcohol provides 7 calories per gram but not considered a nutrient (a drug)

  • Digestion: the process of breaking down food, and the nutrients in food, into simpler substances, the blood then carries the simple substances to cells for use in growth, repair and maintenance

    • Mechanical digestion: food is crushed  and churned (chewing food)

    • Chemical digestion: food is mixed with powerful acids and enzymes

      • Enzymes are a type of protein produced by cells that cause specific chemical reactions (digestive enzymes cause food particles to break apart into simpler substances

    • Gastrointestinal (GI) tract

      • 25-30 ft (7.6-9.1m) long

      • Digested food passes through this muscular tube from mouth to anus

    • Mouth is where chewing is the first step in digestive process

      • Teeth and tongue work together to crush food into smaller pieces

      • Tongue contains about 10,000 taste buds

      • Salivary glands produce saliva (99% water 1% chemicals)

      • One of the chemicals is salivary amylase found only in mouth to help chemically break down the starches in food

      • Saliva also cleanses the teeth and neutralize mouth acids

    • Esophagus moves food from mouth to stomach and is 10 in long

      • The other tube in the throat is the trachea (windpipe) that contains a flap of skin called the epiglottis that closes to keep food from entering the trachea (breathing automatically stops when you swallow food to help prevent choking)

      • Peristalsis: a series of squeezing action by the muscles in the esophagus helps move food through the tube (involuntary)

    • Stomach produces gastric juices to prepare for digesting the oncoming food

      • Juices contain: hydrochloric acid, digestive enzymes, and mucus

      • Mixture of gastric juices and swallowed food combine in the stomach → this mixture is called chyme

      • Acid in stomach is almost as strong as battery acid found in a car

      • The stomach wall has a thick lining, called the mucosa that secretes mucus (a thick fluid that helps soften and lubricate food, and protect stomach)

      • Protein digestion begins and the major gastric enzyme that begin to chemically break down protein is pepsin

      • Most people can hold 1 quart of food in their stomach and is generally remains in the stomach for 2-3 hours

        • Liquids leave the stomach before solids

        • Carbohydrates and protein digest faster than fat (stay 3-5 hrs)

    • Small intestines handle 95% of digestions

      • Coiled in the abdomen in circular folds in three sections

      • Duodenum: 1 ft long

      • Jejunum: 4 ft long

      • Ileum: 5 ft long

      • When stretched it measures 20 ft in length and 1 inch in diameter

      • Takes 5-14 hours for food to travel from mouth through the small intestine

      • Strong muscular contractions constantly mix and churn food, aiding in mechanical digestion

      • Less acidic than stomach

      • The pancreas is an elongated gland behind the stomach and it helps create the correct environment 

      • Pancreas secretes bicarbonate which neutralizes hydrochloric acid that had come from the stomach with partially digested food

      • Also produces digestive enzymes that aid in chemical digestion in small intestine

      • These enzymes break down proteins, fats and carbohydrates into their most basic parts so your body can use them

      • Amino acids are the basic parts of proteins

        • Protease breaks down protein

      • Monosaccharides are the basic parts of carbohydrates

        • Saccharidases break down carbohydrates (into simple sugars)

      • Fatty acids, glycerol, and monoglycerides are the basic parts of fats

        • Lipases break down fats

      • Liver is also involved in chemical digestion of small intestine

        • Large gland that sits above stomach and produces a digestive juice called bile, which aids in fat digestion → it helps disperse fat in the water-based digestive fluids, which gives enzymes in the fluids access to the fat so they can break it down

        • Bile is stored in a muscular sac called the gallbladder until needed → secreted into first part of the small intestine

    • Large intestine is also called the colon

      • About 3.5 ft in body or 5-6 ft when stretched

      • Very little digestion occurs here

      • Main job is to reabsorb water

      • Chyme usually stays in the colon for 1-3 days before elimination

      • During this time, water is absorbed through the walls of the colon

      • Useful bacteria in the colon work on fiber and also help manufacture small amounts of some vitamins

      • Solid wastes that result from digestion are called feces

        • Mucus

        • Bile pigments

        • Fiber

        • Water

      • The end of the large intestine is the rectum and feces collect here until they pass from the body through the anus

  • Absorption is the passage of nutrients from the digestive tract into the circulatory or lymphatic tract

    • Most nutrients pass through the walls of the small intestine, but alcohol and other drugs can be absorbed in the stomach (alcohol in the mouth too)

    • The inside surface area of the small intestine is about 600 times larger than a smooth tube because the walls are pleated with thousands of folds covered in villi

      • Villi are tiny fingerlike projections that give the lining a velvet like texture

      • Each cell of every villus is covered with microvilli which are like microscopic hairs that help catch nutrient particles

      • Some nutrients can dissolve in water and they are called water-soluble nutrients

        • These nutrients include amino acids from proteins, monosaccharides from carbohydrates, minerals, most vitamins and water

        • Tiny blood vessels in the villi called capillaries absorb water-soluble nutrients into the bloodstream which are then carried to the liver through the portal vein

      • Some nutrients can dissolve in fat and they are called fat-soluble nutrients 

        • These nutrients include a few vitamins as well as fatty acids, glycerol, and monoglycerides from fats

        • Lymph vessels in the villi called lacteals absorb fat-soluble nutrients in the lymphatic system then into the bloodstream

  • Metabolism: all the chemical changes that occur as cells produce energy and materials needed to sustain life are known as metabolism

    • Once nutrients are digested and absorbed, the circulatory system takes overs and carries nutrients and oxygen to cells

    • During metabolism, cells make some compounds, they use them for energy and store others for later use

      • Cells can make new proteins to be used for growth and the body will slough off worn cells and replace them with new cells

    • Cells convert some nutrients into energy, the body stores this energy as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) → the source of immediate energy found in muscle tissue

    • When the body needs energy, chemical reactions break down ATP to release energy

    • Every cell makes ATP to help meet all your energy needs

    • The body must discard waste products that result from cell metabolism 

    • Waste products leave the body through the kidneys, lungs and skin

    • The kidneys act like a filter to remove waste and excess water from blood and form urine which collects in bladder and is then excreted

    • Drinking 6-8 cups of water daily helps keep waste out of the body

    • Breath from your lunges and perspiration through your skin also excrete waste products from cell metabolism

    • The harder and faster you breathe while exercising the more moisture and carbon dioxide you lose

  • Eating habits can affect how your body absorbs nutrients

  • Fiber helps strengthen your intestinal muscles 

    • Forms a mass that creates resistance against which the muscles of the intestine can push

  • Eat moderate amounts of food not too quickly to ensure normal digestion

  • Foods high in fat take longer to digest than foods high in carbohydrates or protein

  • In the stomach, fats separate from the watery part of the chyme and float to the top so they are the last food component to leave the stomach

  • Fats will make you feel fuller for longer because they take longer to digest

  • A food allergy is a reaction of your body’s immune system to certain proteins found in foods

    • Most common in infants and young adulthood

    • The immune system is the body’s defense system, it includes:

      • Tonsils

      • Thyroid

      • Lymph glands

      • Spleen

      • White blood cells

    • It protects the body against disease and foreign materials 

    • Produces proteins called antibodies that combat foreign materials in your bloodstream

    • The protein that stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies is called an allergen

    • When an allergen enters the body, the release of antibodies leads to allergy symptoms

      • Vomiting

      • Stomach pain

      • Intestinal distress

      • Skin rashes

      • Swelling

      • Breathing problems

  • Allergies can change over a lifespan

  • Most common allergic reactions:

    • Tree nuts

    • Peanuts

    • Eggs

    • Milk

    • Soybeans

    • Wheat

    • Fish

    • Shellfish

  • A food intolerance cause an unpleasant reaction to food but does not cause an immune system response

    • Caused by deficiencies or reactions in the digestive tract

    • Symptoms include

      • Elevated blood pressure

      • Sweating

      • Headache

  • Physical activity can aid in digestion and metabolism

  • Digestive disorders: digestive system normally function better without drugs

    • Diarrhea: frequent expulsion of watery feces

      • Food sensitivities, harmful bacteria and stress are a few causes

      • Cause food to through digestive system too quickly for nutrients to be fully absorbed 

      • Can lead to loss of body fluids so drink lots of water

    • Constipation: chyme moves very slowly through large intestine

      • Too much water is reabsorbed from the chyme which causes feces to become hard and make bowel movements painful

      • Straining during elimination can lead to hemorrhoids which are swollen veins in the rectum

      • Result from erratic eating habits, low fiber intake, lack or exercise, lack of hydration and not responding to a bowel movement urge

      • Laxatives can cause body to become dependent on them so a diet high in fiber is a better choice

    • Indigestion: a difficulty in digesting food

      • Caused by stress, eating too much or too fast and eating particular foods

      • Symptoms include gas, stomach cramps, and nausea

      • Antacids are often taken to neutralize stomach acids, but to many can alter stomach acidity levels and interfere with nutrient absorption rates

      • Instead avoid eating too much of one food or too many calories at one meal, avoid eating foods that upset your stomach, and eat in a relaxed atmosphere to reduce stress

    • Heartburn: a burning pain in the middle of the chest but has nothing to do with the heart

      • Stomach acid flowing back into the esophagus causes heartburn also known as reflux

      • Antacids can help but if heartburn in recurrent it could be a sign of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) which can cause damage to the esophagus and is common among older adults

    • Ulcer: an open sore in the lining of the stomach or small intestine

      • Caused by a bacterium and the area becomes inflamed and experiences a burning pain

      • Antibiotic therapy is often prescribed to reduce the level of acid in digestive system to help healing process

      • Avoid alcohol, caffeine, chocolate, certain herbs, spicy foods and tobacco

    • Gallstones: small crystals that form from bile in the gallbladder

      • When gallstones are blocking the duct between the gallbladder and the small intestine this contraction causes severe pain

      • Can cause fluids to pool and back up in the liver

      • Treatment is medical supervision, low-fat diet, possible removal

    • Diverticulosis: a disorder in which many abnormal pouches form in the intestinal wall

      • When the pouches become inflamed it’s called diverticulitis

      • Can occur when intestinal muscles become weak, like when a diet is too low in fiber

      • A high-fat diet and an inactive lifestyle can also increase the risk of getting this disease

      • Best prevention is to eat a high-fiber diet which helps keep intestinal muscles toned

Chapter 4 = Nutrition Guidelines

  • Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) are reference values for nutrients and food components that can be used to plan and assess diets for healthy people

    • The purpose is to promote health and prevent chronic disease and the effects of excessive or deficient nutrient intakes

    • 4 types

      • Estimated Average Requirement (EAR)

        • Nutrient recommendation estimated to meet the needs of 50% of the people in a defined group

        • Based on scientific evidence and used to calculator the RDA

      • Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)

        • Average daily intake of a nutrient required to meet the needs of most (97-98%) healthy individuals

        • Can be used as an aim for typical daily intake for a person

      • Adequate Intake (AI)

        • Reference value used when there is insufficient scientific evidence to determine an EAR

        • Bases on estimates and observations of people who appear to be healthy and well-nourished

        • Used for all nutrients for infants

      • Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL)

        • Maximum level of ongoing daily intake for a nutrient that is unlikely to cause harm to most people in a defined group

        • Daily intake above UL for a nutrient could be harmful

        • UL’s are not recommended levels of intake

    • DRIs are used by scientists and nutritionists to analyze diets to determine the levels of nutrients being supplied

    • Foundation for other nutrition-related guidance for americans

  • Dietary Guidelines for Americans is a document that provides information and advice to promote information and advice to promote health through improved nutrition and physical activity

    • The goal is for Americans to meet the nutrient levels established in the DRIs by consuming a variety of foods

      • Two summarizations include:

        • Maintain calorie balance over time to achieve and sustain a healthy weight

        • Focus on consuming nutrient-dense foods and beverages

          • Nutrient dense foods and beverages provides vitamins, minerals and other substances that may have positive health effects but supply few calories

          • Foods high in calories from solid fats and added sugars called SoFAS should be avoided or limited

  • MyPlate divides foods into five main food groups:

    • Fruits

      • Rich in nutrients and fiber, can be fresh, frozen, pureed, or dried

    • Vegetables

      • Provide nutrients and fiber, can be fresh, frozen, or canned

    • Grains

      • Source of fiber, some B vitamins and minerals, half or grains should be whole grains, other can be refined grains

    • Protein

      • Supplies variety of nutrients including protein, essential fatty acids, B vitamins, iron, zinc, magnesium, and vitamin E, at least 8 ounce of seafood per week

    • Dairy

      • Includes foods high in protein and calcium for bone health such as milk, cheese, milk based desserts, and yogurt, calcium fortified foods and beverages may provide calcium, but lack other nutrients supplied by foods in this group

  • Oils are fats that are liquid at room temperature and obtained from plants and fish

    • Not a food group but some are needed to provide essential nutrients

    • Small amounts are recommended because they are high in calories

  • Fats solid at room temperature are considered empty calories and should be limited

  • MY DAILY FOOD PLAN

  • Exchange Lists for Meal Planning

    • Starch List

    • Fruit List

    • Milk List

    • Vegetable List

    • Meat List

    • Fats List

      • Swap similar foods within each category to switch up meals while getting similar nutrients

  • Daily Value on nutrition panels are the recommended nutrient intakes based on daily calorie needs

    • Based off 2,000 calories per day 

    • Shows nutrient facts for one serving

  • Keep food diary to track daily intake and use software to show what you are missing

Part 2: The Health Effects of Energy Nutrients

Chapter 5 = Carbohydrates: The Preferred Body Fuel

  • Carbohydrates are the sugars. Scratches and fibers in your diet

  • Except for the natural sugar in milk, almost all carbohydrates are from plant sources

  • Should be bulk of diet

  • Made up of 3 common chemical elements

    • Carbon

    • Hydrogen

    • Oxygen

    • These elements are bonded together to form saccharides or sugar units

    • Can be combined in several ways, the arrangement determines the type of sugar unit

  • Monosaccharides are carbohydrates composed of single sugar units and are the smallest carbohydrate molecules

  • The 3 monosaccharides are:

    • Glucose

      • Called blood sugar because is circulates in the bloodstream and is the body’s source of energy

    • Fructose

      • Has the sweetest taste of all sugars and occurs naturally in fruits and honey

    • Galactose

      • Does not occur alone as a monosaccharide in foods, instead it is found bonded to glucose

      • Together the two monosaccharides form the sugar in milk

  • Disaccharides are made up of 2 sugar units and the body splits them into monosaccharides during digestion

  • All the monosaccharides and disaccharides are collectively referred to as sugars

  • The 3 disaccharides are:

    • Sucrose

      • Sugar used in recipes, 1 glucose molecule and one fructose molecule bond together to form sucrose

      • Found in many foods and beet sugar, cane sugar, molasses, and maple syrup are concentrated sources of sucrose

    • Lactose

      • Found in milk and is made of one glucose molecule and one galactose molecule that are bonded together 

      • Serves as source of energy for breast-fed infants

    • Maltose

      • Made of 2 glucose molecules that are bonded together

      • Formed during the digestion of starch and found in certain grains such as malt

  • Polysaccharides are carbohydrates that are made up of many sugar units

  • These units are linked in long, straight chains or branched chains

  • Must be broken down during digestion

  • The 2 polysaccharides are:

    • Starch

      • The storage form of energy in plants

      • Made of many glucose molecules that are bonded together

      • Grain products like bread, cereal and starchy vegetables are high in starch

    • Fiber

      • Dietary fiber

        • The nondigestible carbohydrates and lignins that make up the tough, fibrous cell walls of plants

        • Lignins are not carbohydrates but act as the binder in cell walls

        • Found only in plant foods

      • Functional fiber

        • Isolated, nondigestible carbohydrates that have beneficial effects in human health

        • Extracted from plants and prepared in a lab

        • Resistant starch is a functional fiber that is produced when cereals and grains are processed and baked, then its extracted from the original food source and added to other processed foods to enhance health benefits

        • Functional foods: when fiber is added to provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition

      • Total fiber

        • Sum of dietary and functional fibers

        • Human digestive enzymes cannot digest fibers, but bacteria in the digestive tract can break down some fibers

        • Because most fibers pass through the digestive system unchanged, these carbohydrates provide almost no energy (calories)

          • Cellulose

          • Gum

          • B glucan

          • Psyllium

          • Pectin

        • AI for total fiber for 14-18 year olds is 26 grams for females and 38 grams for males

  • Simple carbohydrates include monosaccharides and disaccharides because of their simpler molecular structures

    • Simple carbohydrates refer to foods high in simple sugars

  • Complex carbohydrates include polysaccharides because they have a larger more intricate molecular structure

    • Complex carbohydrates refer to foods high in starch and fiber

    • Choose more complex carbohydrates over simple carbohydrates

  • Carbohydrate functions:

    • Provide energy

      • Carbohydrates are the preferred source of energy because the body can use and store them so efficiently

      • When you exercise, you draw stored carbohydrates for energy, and when you run out of carbohydrates your body begins using protein for fuel (small amounts of fat can also be converted during long periods of exercise)

    • Spare proteins

      • If you eat too little carbohydrates, your body is unable to use proteins to build and maintain cell structure

    • Assist in breaking down fats

      • The body cannot completely break down fats if the diet is too low in carbohydrates

      • Ketone bodies are formed when fats are not broken down completely

        • These compounds collect in the bloodstream causing the blood to become more acidic than normal which can damage cells and organs → called ketosis

          • The breath of a person with ketosis has the smell of nail polish remover and also feels nauseous and week and can lead to a coma or death

    • Provide bulk in the diet

      • Fiber is responsible for adding bulk to the diet

      • It helps promote normal digestion and elimination of body wastes

      • Fiber is a solid material that helps intestinal muscles retain their tone

      • Fiber acts like a sponge because it absorbs water which softens the stool which make it easier to pass reducing the likelihood of hemorrhoids

      • Some fiber forms gels that add bulk to stools and relieve diarrhea

      • Volume of food helps you feel full

      • Plenty of fiber in a low-fat diet helps reduce risk of many diseases

  • All carbohydrates must be in the form of glucose for your cells to use them as an energy source

    • To get them in this form your digestive system breaks down polysaccharides and disaccharides from foods into monosaccharides

    • The monosaccharides are small enough to move across the intestinal wall into the blood which then trail via the blood to the liver (any fructose and galactose in the blood is converted to glucose in the liver)

    • When the amount of glucose in the blood rises (after you eat) the hormone insulin is released from the pancreas

      • Insulin helps the body lower blood glucose back to normal levels

      • It triggers body cells to burn glucose for energy and causes muscles and the liver to store glucose

      • In healthy bodies, blood glucose is carefully managed, but is carbohydrates are not broken down, then proteins and fats are broken down for energy, when blood glucose levels become too high, cells are damaged

    • If you cells don’t have immediate energy needs, the excess glucose from the bloodstream is stored and the cells convert the glucose to glycogen

      • Glycogen is the body’s storage of glucose

      • ⅔ of the body's glycogen is stored in our muscles for use as an energy source during muscular activity

      • ⅓ is stored in the liver for the use by the rest of the body

      • Your liver can only store a limited amount of glycogen

      • You need to eat carbohydrates through the day to keep you glycogen stores replenished

      • If you eat more carbohydrates than your body can immediately use or store as glycogen, the liver converts the excess carbohydrate into fat 

      • An unlimited amount of fat can be stored the the fatty tissues of your body, fat stores cannot be converted back into glucose

    • Complex carbohydrates take longer to digest than simple carbohydrates which gives complex greater satiety value (feeling of fullness)

  • RDA for carbohydrates is 130 grams for males and females

    • This represents only the sufficient amounts of carbohydrates needed to meet glucose needs for the brain and nervous system, more are needed to provide energy for daily activities

    • Dietary guidelines recommend 45 to 65% of total calories come from carbohydrates

  • Sugars can be divided into 2 categories

    • Natural occurring sugars in foods

      • Lactose in milk and fructose in fruits (do not cause great concern)

    • Sugars added to foods at the table or during processing, also called refined sugars

      • These sugars are carbohydrate sweeteners that are separated from their natural sources for use as food additives

      • Added to increase bulk or aid in browning as well as a sweetener

      • Added sugars reduce the nutrient density of processed foods

      • High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is made by converting about half of the glucose found in cornstarch into fructose, which results in a product sweeter than sucrose

      • Reduced-fat and fat-free food products often contain added sugar

        • When fat is removed, sugar is added

      • A tsp of sugar is about 4 grams of carbohydrates (limit added sugar to 32 grams or 8 tsp per day)

      • WHO (world health organization) says to limit added sugars to no more than 10% of daily caloric intake

  • Starches are the preferred source of fuel for you diet, your body can burn them efficiently for energy and they have greater satiety value than simple sugars (also good sources of vitamins, minerals, and fiber)

  • Fiber 

    • DRI for fiber is 38 grams per day for males age 14-50 

    • DRI for fiber is 26 grams per day for females age 14-18 and 25 for age 19-50

    • Increase fiber intake by choosing whole-grain products which contain:

      • Bran is the outer layer of the grain (good source of fiber)

      • Germ is the nutrient-rich part of the kernel

      • Endosperm is the largest part of the kernel and contains mostly starch

      • Processing removes the bran and germ and most of the fiber to produce refined grain products

      • Fiber supplements are not as beneficial as fiber from food sources

  • Glycemic Index (GI)

    • Measure of the speed at which various carbohydrates are digested into glucose, absorbed, and enter the bloodstream

    • Pure glucose raises blood glucose levels more quickly than any other carbohydrate

    • Foods with high GI produce a quick, steep increase in blood glucose followed by a fast drop in levels

    • Foods with lower GI result in slower, less dramatic increases in blood glucose levels

    • A food is assigned a GI based on how it compares to an equal amount of pure glucose (GI=100), scores can be affected by how food is prepared, food combination, and differences in individuals metabolisms

    • A person can have different GI scores for the same food eaten at different times of the time

    • Carbohydrates consumed with fat, protein, or fiber are digested and absorbed more slowly

    • Less glucose building up in the blood when foods with lower GI values are consumed 

  • Tooth decay

    • Bacteria that live in the mouth feed on the carbohydrates in food particles which forms plaque on teeth, as the bacteria grows they produce acid that eats away the protective tooth enamel forming pits in the teeth which can deepen into cavities

    • Snacks between meals are more likely to remain in your mouth and in contact with your teeth for longer, so make sure to drink plenty of water 

  • Sugar is not directly linked to hyperactivity

  • Sugar is not addictive when a variety diet is eaten regularly

  • Diabetes mellitus is the lack of or an inability to use the hormone insulin 

    • Glucose builds up in the bloodstream when this occurs

  • Type 1 diabetes

    • The pancreas is not able to make insulin 

    • Children and young adults

    • Have to take daily injections of insulin to maintain normal blood glucose levels

    • 5-10% of all cases

  • Type 2 diabetes

    • Body cells do not respond well to the insulin the pancreas makes 

    • More common → 90-95% of cases

    • Adults over 40 

    • People who are overweight and eat diets high in refined carbohydrates and low in fiber are at a greater risk

    • Require insulin injections 

    • In earlier stages it can be controlled with diet and physical activity

  • Symptoms of both types include:

    • Excessive hunger and thirst

    • Weakness

    • Irritability

    • Nausea

    • Eyesight changes

    • Slow healing of cuts

    • Drowsiness

    • Numbness in legs, feet, or fingers

  • Hypoglycemia

    • A low blood glucose level

    • Overproduction of insulin causes blood sugar to drop sharply 2-4 hours after eating a meal 

    • Symptoms include:

      • Sweating

      • Shaking

      • Headaches

      • Hunger

      • Anxiety

  • Lactose intolerance

    • Inability to digest lactose 

    • Cause by lack of the digestive enzyme lactase which is needed to break down lactose

    • Milk and dairy products are the main sources of calcium and vitamin D so people with lactose intolerance need to find alternative sources

    • Yogurt, cheese, and buttermilk are more tolerable than milk because the lactose in these products is changes to lactic acid or broken down into glucose and galactose during the culturing process

Chapter 6 = Fats: A Concentrated Energy Source

  • Lipid is a broader term for a group of components that includes fats, oils, lecithin, and cholesterol

  • 3 main classes:

    • Triglycerides

      • Major type of fat found in found and in the body

      • Called blood fat

      • In excess triglycerides are stored in the fat cells and in the liver

      • Consist of 3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule

        • Glycerol is an alcohol that has 3 carbon atoms and is the backbone of the triglyceride molecule

        • Fatty acids are the organic compounds made up of a chain of carbon atoms t which hydrogen atoms are attached

        • The last carbon atom at one end of the chain forms an acid group with 2 oxygen atoms and a hydrogen atom

        • Fatty acid chains vary in length

        • Most common fatty acids in food have 16-18 carbon atoms’

      • Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds in their chemical structure

        • Full load of hydrogen atoms

      • Unsaturated fatty acid has at least one double bond between 2 carbon atoms in each molecule

        • If a double bond is broken 2 hydrogen can be added to the molecule

        • The number of double bonds and hydrogen atoms in the fatty acid chain determine the degree of saturation

      • Monounsaturated fatty acid has only one double bond between carbon atoms

      • Polyunsaturated fatty acid has 2 or more double bonds

      • Almost all fats and oils contain a mixture of the 3 types of fatty acid

      • The prevalent type of fatty acid determines whether a lipid is liquid or solid at room temperature

        • Lipids high in saturated fatty acid tend to be solid at room temperature

        • Lipids high in unsaturated fatty acids tend to be liquid at room temperature

        • Unsaturated fats have lower melting point than more highly saturated fats

      • Unsaturated fatty acids can be hydrogenated which is the process of breaking the double carbon bonds in unsaturated fatty acids and adding hydrogen

        • These fatty acids are known as trans fatty acids or trans fat

          • The process converts liquid oils into solid fats 

          • Main reason is to change the texture and to improve keeping quality

          • Oils turn rancid if they are exposed to air or stored for a long time

          • Rancid describes a food oil in which the fatty acid molecules have combined with oxygen which causes them to break down and the oil spoils

          • Hydrogenated fats have a longer shelf life

        • Trans fat acts like saturated fat which is know to contribute to heart disease

        • Trans fat increase levels of fatty deposits on the walls of the arteries which increase heart disease

        • Trans fat also linked to high blood cholesterol levels 

        • Less than 1% of your daily caloric intake should be trans fat

        • If trans fat is under 0.5 grams it can be listed as 0 grams

    • Phospholipids

      • Lipids that have phosphorus-containing compound in their chemical structure

      • Lecithin is a phospholipid that is made in the liver so it's not essential to the diet

      • Found in many foods like egg yolks, but soy lecithin is added to baked products and candy

      • Lecithin is an emulsifier, a substance that can mix with both water and fat

      • Lecithin is part of cell membranes, but it is broken down during digestion so the body doesn’t recognize it as lecithin when absorbed

    • Sterols

      • Complex molecular structure that includes some hormones, vitamin D, and cholesterol

      • Cholesterol, a type of sterol is a white waxy lipid, this fat-like substance performs essential function in the body and provides structure for all cell membranes 

      • Cholesterol is made by the body and found in every cell (so not essential in diet

      • Cholesterol is only found in animal tissues, so it never presents in plants

      • Phytosterols are compounds from plants similar in structure to cholesterol

      • Phytosterols include plant sterols and stanols

      • Including plant sterols and stanols in diet may lower LDL cholesterol

  • 2 polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid are called essential fatty acids

    • Your body cannot make them so you get them from your diet

  • Lipids provide a concentrated source of energy

  • The body stores  a large share of lipids in adipose tissue and half of this tissue is just under your skin that holds in body heat

    • The fat cells in this tissue can expand to hold an almost unlimited amount of fat

    • Vitamins A, D, E, and K dissolve in fat, they are carried into your body along with the fat in foods, lipids also help move these vitamins around inside your body

    • Lipids are part of the structure of every cell, you need lipids for the formation of healthy cell membrane

  • Most fats in foods are triglycerides

  • Breaking fat into tiny droplets increases its surface area which makes it easier for pancreatic enzymes to break triglycerides down into glycerol, fatty acids, and monoglycerides, bile’s emulsifying effect improves the absorption of the fat by the cells lining the intestine

  • Glycerol and short-chain fatty acids resulting from fat digestion pass through the intestinal lining directly into the bloodstream

  • In the intestinal cells, monoglycerides and long-chain fatty acids are converted back into triglycerides and clustered together

  • These clusters of triglycerides are thinly coated with cholesterol, phospholipids, and proteins to form chylomicrons

  • The chylomicrons are then absorbed into the lymphatic system and eventually move into the bloodstream

  • The protein and phospholipid coat on chylomicrons allows fats to remain dispersed in water-based blood

  • Once chylomicrons enter the bloodstream, they are again broken down to fatty acids and glycerol

  • This process helps fats from your diet move efficiently through your blood vessels to the tissues where fatty acids can be absorbed for fuel or stored

  • Chylomicrons are one type of lipoprotein which is a combination of fats and proteins that help transport fats in the body

    • Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) are a second type, they carry triglycerides and cholesterol made by the liver to body cells, once in the bloodstream, some of the triglycerides in VLDL are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids and released

    • Losing triglycerides cause VLDL to become more dense and contain a larger percentage of cholesterol

    • At this point, VLDL becomes low-density lipoprotein (LDL), which carries cholesterol through the bloodstream to body cells

    • A fourth type of lipoprotein is the high-density lipoprotein (HDL) which picks up cholesterol from around the body and transfer it to other lipoproteins for transport back to the liver, the liver processes this returned cholesterol as a waste product for removal from you body

  • The enzymes on the lining of blood vessels break down the triglycerides in chylomicrons and VLDL into glycerol and fatty acids, body cells can take up fatty acids from the bloodstream

  • Cells can break fatty acids down further to release energy for immediate needs, if the cells do not have immediate energy needs, they can rebuild the fatty acids into triglycerides, the cells store these triglycerides for future energy needs

  • When needed, fat cells can break down stored triglycerides, they send fatty acids through the bloodstream to other body cells that use lipids for fuel

  • Coronary artery disease (CHD) is the disease of the heart and blood vessels → leading cause of death in US

    • Arteries are the blood vessels that carry oxygen and nutrients to body tissue

    • Plaque can form from large amounts of cholesterol

    • When plaque increase, it hardens and narrows the arteries, this is called atherosclerosis (most common form of heart disease)

      • Heart has to work harder and this cause blood pressure to rise

      • Blood clots are more likely to form and can cut off blood supply

    • A buildup of plaque in the heart arteries can lead to a heart attack 

    • A buildup of plaque in the brain arteries can lead to stroke

    • In both cases cells are destroyed because the blocked arteries cannot supply enough nutrients or oxygen to the tissue

    • Risk of heart attack increases with age 65+

    • Males are more likely to get heart attacks females (female hormones during menopause)

    • Some ethnic groups and family history

    • Biggest risks are smoking, high BP, high blood cholesterol, diabetes, stress, being overweight

    • Hypertension is abnormally high blood pressure

      • Normal BP is 120/80 mm of mercury

      • 120 is the systolic pressure (pressure when contracted)

      • 80 is the diastolic pressure (pressure between beats

      • 20-25% of people have hypertension (140/90 = hypertension)

    • High blood cholesterol

      • Blood serum refers to the watery portion of blood in which blood cells and other materials are suspended, one is cholesterol

        • Known as serum cholesterol with dietary cholesterol which is found in food

      • Large amounts of serum cholesterol is a risk factor for CHD

  • Blood lipid profile

    • Medical test that measure cholesterol, HDL, LDL, and triglycerides in the blood (measures the number of milligrams found in a deciliter of blood)

    • HDL is good cholesterol, carry excess cholesterol to the liver to be discarded

    • LDL is bad cholesterol, deposited in body tissues → high risk of CHD

    • Total cholesterol/HDL ratio between 4 to 1

    • High levels of blood triglycerides and high levels serum cholesterol may increase the risk of CHD

  • Desirable blood lipid levels

    • Total cholesterol: less than 200 mg/dL

    • HDL: 60 mg/dL and above

    • LDL: less than 100 mg/dL

    • Triglycerides: less than 150 mg/dL

  • Excess Weights

    • Every found of stored body fat is equal to 3,500 calories of energy

    • Excess fat needs more blood vessels which puts strain on the heart and raised blood pressure and makes it hard to control

  • Exercise

    • Helps people manage weight, reduce stress, control cholesterol, and strengthen the heart muscle, and improves the flexibility of your arteries

    • Strength training and weight lifting is important because when your muscles contract, you begin to improve the ability to use glucose and respond with insulin more effectively

  • Stress

    • Staying stress free and not too competitive, impatient, irritable, and easily angered will lower your risk of CHD

  • National Cholesterol Education Program recommends a maximum intake of 300 mg cholesterol per day

    • Plant foods are recommended to provide fiber and heart-protective substances

  • The Dietary Guidelines recommend no more than 20-35% of the total calories to come from fats and less than 10% should come from saturated fats, trans fat should be less than 1%

    • Active teen boys:

      • No more than 123 grams of fat

      • No more than 35 grams from saturated fat

    • Active teen girls:

      • No more than 92 grams of fat

      • No more than 26 grams of saturated fat

  • Omega-3 fatty acids lower the risk of heart disease (fish oil pill → could be semi-helpful in small amounts → too much is dangerous)

    • Instead eat fish at least once a week (8 oz or more)

  • Cancer

    • Disease in which abnormal cells grow out of control (and spread throughout the body)

    • Things to do to prevent cancer

      • Foods with monounsaturated fat and foods high in omega-3 fatty acids

      • Eat fruits and vegetables, and healthy grains

      • Maintain healthy weight 

      • Exercise 

    • Things not to do

      • Foods high in saturated fats 

  • Selecting foods low in total fat, as well as cholesterol and saturated and trans fat is important for americans over the age of 2

    • Be cautious of invisible fat that is hidden in certain foods

    • No more than 35% of diet should be of fat

    • Fat replacers are okay but be cautious of added sugar

    • Choose lean mean cuts

    • Limit butter, cream, salad dressing

Chapter 7 = Proteins: The Body’s Building Blocks

  • Protein

    • An energy-yielding nutrient composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen (nitrogen makes it difference from carbohydrates and fats)

  • Amino acids are the building blocks of protein molecules

    • Most proteins are made up of different patterns and combinations of about 20 amino acids which are linked in strands

    • Part of the structure is the side chain which gives identity and a unique chemical makeup to each amino acid

    • The body has at least 30,000 types of proteins, the number and order in which they are linked determine the type of protein

    • Amino acids are combined in different sequences to form different proteins and are arranged one after the other in a straight line or stacked up and branched like a tree

  • DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is found in the nucleus of every cell and provides instructions for how the amino acids will be linked to form the proteins in your body

  • Protein molecules can change shape and take on new characteristics → called denaturation

    • Heat, acids, bases, and alcohol can denature proteins

    • Once they have denatured or changed, they can’t return to original shape

  • Your body can synthesize 11 of the amino acids from the other amino acids

    • Synthesize means your body can use one or more compounds to make a new and different compound

  • The amino acids you body can make itself are called dispensable amino acids (nonessential amino acids)

  • Your body can’t make the reaming 9 amino acids and they are called indispensable amino acids (essential amino acids) and you get them from the food you eat

  • When you eat a protein food, stomach acids denature the proteins which makes it easier for enzymes to break down large protein molecules into smaller pieces

    • As they move through the small intestine other enzymes break them down into single amino acids

    • The amino acids are absorbed into the bloodstream and then the blood carries amino acids to body cells that need them

  • Your cells can use amino acids from food proteins to build new proteins and they can also convert amino acids to other compounds, including other amino acids

    • The proteins built by cells are custom designed to perform a wide range of functions in the body

  • Protein is necessary to form the structure of muscles, organs, skin, blood, hair, nails and every other body part

    • As your body grows, it used protein to help make new tissue

  • Protein makes up 18-20% of your body and skeletal muscle accounts for more than half of body protein

    • About 3% of this protein is broken down each day

  • When you eat a nutritious diet and exercise regularly, your body used proteins to build lean muscle mass, but before you can build muscle, you have to meet your protein needs for normal growth and repair of tissues

  • Your body used proteins to make a number of import compounds which include enzymes that cause specific chemical reactions in your body

    • Digestive enzymes cause a chemical breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from food

  • Proteins are also used to make some hormones

    • Hormones are chemicals released into the bloodstream to control specific body processes 

    • Antibodies are proteins that defend the body against infection and disease

  • Proteins help carry the minerals sodium and potassium from one side of cell walls to the other

    • These minerals and other proteins control the flow of water throughout the cell membrane

    • A balance between the inside and outside of the cell is crucial for normal functioning of every cell

  • Proteins help maintain the acid base balance of the blood

    • Acid base balance refers to the maintenance of the correct levels of acidity of a body fluid

    • Proteins in the blood act as chemical buffers which are compounds that can counteract an excess of acid or base in a fluid

    • If blood becomes too acidic, it can be life threatening

  • Proteins linked with fats form lipoproteins, the compounds used to carry fats in the bloodstream 

    • Protein also used to transport iron and other nutrients (also oxygen)

    • Each cell in the body has proteins that act as cargo carriers

    • Protein is the carrier of chromosomes and other bundles of protein to other parts of the cell, needs to be there or health suffers

  • Only protein can perform cell growth and repair, but the number 1 priority is to provide cells with the energy they need to exist

    • Too much protein causes the body to use protein as an energy source

  • Animal protein

    • Often high in saturated fat

    • Quite expensive → not everyone can afford it

  • Plant protein

    • Legumes: plants that have a special ability to capture nitrogen from the air and transfer it to their protein-rich seeds (soybeans, peanuts, chickpeas, beans, lentils)

  • Vegetarianism

    • Diet is based on plant foods

    • Generally high in fiber and low in saturated fat with no cholesterol

    • Many reasons why people are vegetarians

  • Protein quality

    • Animal foods are sources of complete proteins

      • Means that all the indispensable amino acids humans need are present in the proteins

    • Plant foods are sources of incomplete proteins

      • Missing one for more of the indispensable amino acids

    • Not enough of certain amino acids leaves some proteins incomplete and unusable

    • Complementary proteins are when two or more incomplete proteins that can be combined to provide all the indispensable amino acids (grain + legumes)

  • Your body does not store protein so you need it everyday

    • People who are still growing need more protein

    • Males have a higher percentage of lean tissue than females so they need for protein usually

  • RDA for protein

    • 52 grams per day for 14-18 year old males

    • 46 grams per day for 14-18 year old females

      • These are calculated based on 0.85 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight

      • After age 19 it lowers to 0.8 grams

      • About 10% of daily calories should be protein

      • Kilogram is 2.2 lb

  • Athletes in high intensity sports (muscle building) need more protein than low intensity sports (more endurance based)

  • Athletes

    • 60-65% of calories should come from carbohydrates

    • 20-25% of calories should come from fats

    • 10-20% of calories should come from proteins

    • Drink fluids before, during and after exercise is important because sweating and heat can result in dehydration

  • Nitrogen balance is a comparison of the nitrogen a person consumes with the nitrogen he or she excretes

    • Protein is the only energy nutrient that provides nitrogen so its used to evaluate a person's protein status

    • Healthy means your in nitrogen equilibrium

      • This means they excrete the same amount of nitrogen they take in every day

      • A person who is building new tissue takes in more protein than he or she excretes → called positive nitrogen balance

      • A person whose tissues are deteriorating would be losing more nitrogen than they consume (starving) → called negative nitrogen balance

  • Deficiency is a shortage and a deficiency disease is the lack of an essential nutrient 

  • Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) is a condition caused by a lack of calories and proteins in the diet

    • Symptoms include diarrhea and various nutrient deficiencies

    • A form of PEM is kwashiorkor, which is a protein deficiency disease

      • A child with this does not reach their full growth potential from their lack of protein

        • They can develop a bloated abdomen and has skinny arms and legs and the lack of protein also affects the body’s fluid balance and immune system

    • Another form of PEM is marasmus, which is a wasting disease caused by a lack of calories and protein

      • The muscles and tissues of infants and children begin to waste away

        • They biome weak and susceptible to infection and disease (they are starving)

  • Many americans get over the recommended RDA amount or protein

    • A high protein diet produces an overabundance of nitrogen waste and the body must excrete this waste before it builds up to toxic levels

    • The liver turns nitrogen waste into urea and the kidneys are then responsible for excreting urea in urine, so excess protein creates extra work for the liver and kidneys

  • Diets high in animal protein can sometimes lead to calcium loss which occurs through increased urinary calcium losses

  • The body cannot store excess amino acids as a protein source

    • So it can store them as an energy source by converting them to body fat 

Part 3: The Work of Non Caloric Nutrients

Chapter 8 = Vitamins: Drivers of Cell Processes

  • Vitamin is an essential nutrient needed in tiny amounts to regulate body processes

    • Have no caloric value because they yield no energy

    • Body needs vitamins for the chemical reactions involved in releasing energy from other nutrients

  • Vitamins assist with:

    • Nutrient metabolism

    • Energy production and release

    • Tissue maintenance

    • Normal digestion

    • Infection resistance

  • Vita- means life, amine- refers to a certain chemical structure containing nitrogen

  • If removing the compound from the human diet will eventually cause all humans to develop deficiencies, then the the compound is essential

  • Similarly, if removing the compound does not result in deficiencies the compound is not a vitamin

  • Today there are 13 known vitamins

    • A

    • C

    • D

    • E

    • K

    • B (riboflavin, thiamin, niacin …)

  • Most vitamins have several active forms and all active forms have similar molecular structures

    • Not all similar molecular structures are able to do every function associated with the vitamin

    • There are different names for each form of the same vitamin

  • Vitamins do not share a typical molecular structure, each is unique

    • All vitamins are organic compounds so they contain carbon, and also hydrogen and oxygen

    • Some contain nitrogen, sulfur, or cobalt as well

  • Several vitamins have provitamins

    • Provitamins are compounds that are not vitamins, but the body can convert them into the active form of a vitamin

  • You only need about 1 ounce of vitamins for every 150 pounds (2,400) of food you eat

    • The vitamins you need in one day are only ⅛ of a tsp

  • 2 main causes of vitamin deficiency diseases

    • Insufficient amount of a vitamin in the diet (varies for certain groups)

    • Failure of the body to absorb a vitamin

      • When food moves to quickly through the intestinal tract, vitamins don’t have a chance to be absorbed

  • 2 categories of vitamins

    • Fat-soluble 

      • Vitamins A, D ,E, and K

      • Your body stores these when you take in more than you can use

      • Don't need to consume these every day

      • Toxicity can result if amounts of these are stored become too large

        • Toxicity is a poisonous condition and vitamins A and D are especially toxic if consumed in large amounts over long periods of time (come from supplements not vitamin-rich food)

      • Absorbed through the intestinal walls with fats from food

      • You can draw on stored reserves when intake is low

    • Water-soluble

      • Vitamin C and B-complex vitamins

      • Your body does not store water-soluble vitamins to any great extent

      • Excess is normally excreted in the urine

        • Excess vitamins can cause urine to change color (more yellow)

      • Do not build up to toxic levels in your body

      • You need to consume enough of these every day or you can become deficient

  • Vitamin A

    • Vitamin A deficiency is the leading cause of preventable blindness in children living in africa, asia, and south america (diets lack this vitamin)

    • Functions:

      • This is necessary for the formation of healthy epithelial tissue

      • Epithelial cells are the surface cells that line the outside of the body (covers the eyes, lines the passages of the lungs, intestines, and reproductive organs)

      • Plays a role in keeping skin and hair healthy

      • Adequate amounts keep the eyes free from dryness and infections

      • Helps the linings of the lungs and intestines stay moist and resistant to disease

      • Maintains healthy eyesight, without it, the eye cells can’t make the compounds needed by the eyes to see well in dim light

      • Night blindness: eyes adapt slowly to darkness and night vision become poor

      • Crucial for the development of bone tissue

      • RDA is 900 micrograms for males ages 14+

      • RDA is 700 micrograms for females ages 14+

      • Retinol activity equivalent (RAE) is another unit of measurement for this vitamin

        • Used to measure how strong various vitamin A compounds are and how easy they are for the body to use

      • Animal source

        • Provide this vitamin as a preformed vitamin which is an active form the body can use

        • Reduced fat dairy products are fortified with vitamin A → have one or more nutrients added during processing (removing fat from dairy products removes the fat-soluble vitamin A too)

        • Good sources: liver, fish oils, egg yolks, winter squash, carrots, broccoli, cantaloupe, and apricots

      • Plant source

        • Provide this vitamin as provitamin carotenes, including alpha- and beta- carotene → the body can convert these compounds into more usable form of vitamin A (not in active form when you consume them) therefore have a lower RAE value

    • People who drink little milk or eat few vegetables can have vitamin A deficiencies, symptoms include night blindness, dry scale skin, and fatigue

    • Never take more than 2,800 micrograms → can lead to toxic levels

  • Vitamin D

    • With direct exposure to sunlight, your body can make all the vitamin D it need

    • Functions:

      • Help regulate levels of calcium in the bloodstream

      • This vitamin triggers the release of calcium from the bones

      • Also controls blood calcium levels by enhancing the absorption of calcium from the intestines

      • When blood calcium levels are low, vitamin D also reduces the amount of calcium the kidneys excrete

      • Plays major role in bone health

        • Bone tissue is the chief user of blood calcium and this mineral makes bones rigid and strong

        • Nerve, muscle, and other cells also require calcium

        • This vitamin also plays a role in maintaining all body tissues

        • It regulates the cell cycle and affects the growth and differentiation of many types of cells

      • RDA is 15 micrograms per day for everyone under 70 years old (higher for older adults)

      • This vitamin occurs in 10 different forms

        • 2 important forms to humans are the provitamins D2 (ergocalciferol) and D3 (cholecalciferol)

        • D2 is found in plant foods and D3 is found in animal foods and is also made by the human body in the skin when exposed to sunlight

        • When sunlight shines on skin, a cholesterol-like compound in the skin forms the D3 provitamin, the liver and kidneys then change the provitamin into the form of vitamin D best used by the body

        • 15 minutes of sun exposure a day for light skinned people is enough to meet the daily requirement for vitamin D

        • Darker skinned people may need longer

      • Vitamin D foods: fatty fish, fish oils, eggs, butter, and vitamin D fortified milk and margarine

    • Rickets is a vitamin D deficiency disease (children → now its rare)

      • Without enough vitamin D, not enough calcium is deposited in the bones causing them to become soft and misshapen

    • Osteomalacia (adults)

      • Similar vitamin D deficiency disease, cause leg and spine bones to soften and bend

      • Different from osteoporosis which is a bone condition due to calcium deficiency

    • Never take more than 100 micrograms per day → can lead to toxic levels

      • Sunlight and vitamin D from food cannot accumulate toxic levels, only excess supplements

      • Excess amounts of vitamin D cause too much calcium to be absorbed into the bloodstream, which is then deposited in the kidneys and other soft organs which causes them to become hard and unable to perform their vital functions

  • Vitamin E

    • Functions:

      • Helps maintain healthy immune and nervous systems

      • Main function in your body is as an antioxidant

        • A substance that reacts with oxygen to protect other substances from harmful effects of oxygen exposure

        • Vitamin C and provitamin A are also antioxidants

        • Vitamin E ties up oxygen that could damage the membranes of white and red blood cells and protects the lung cells

      • Free radical: highly reactive, unstable single oxygen molecule

        • They regularly form and can generate a harmful chain reaction that can damage tissue

        • Vitamin E and other antioxidants help deactivate free radicals

      • RDA is 15 milligrams per day for everyone 14+

      • Vitamin E foods: vegetable oils, some fruits and vegetables, margarine, wheat germ, multigrain cereals, and nuts

      • High temps destroy vitamin E so food prepared or processed with high heat lose their vitamin E value

    • Vitamin E deficiencies cause red blood cells to break, called erythrocyte hemolysis (in premature babies) which makes babies weak and listless

    • Never take more than 800 milligrams per day for humans 14-18 years old

  • Vitamin K

    • Functions:

      • Main function is to make proteins needed in the coagulation of blood

        • Coagulation means clotting (stops bleeding)

      • Also makes a protein that helps bones collect the minerals they need for strength

      • AI is 75 micrograms per day for everyone 14-18 years old

      • Bacteria in the intestinal tract help meet a significant part of your vitamin K needs, it can synthesize vitamin K

      • Vitamin K foods: green leafy vegetables, liver, fruits, milk, meat, eggs, and grain products

    • Vitamin K deficiencies occur when someone takes antibiotics that kill intestinal bacteria

    • Newborns often receive a vitamin K supplement because they do not have enough bacteria in their intestines to synthesize vitamin K

    • Toxicity is rare, a symptom is jaundice, can cause brain damage

    • No maximum amount available yet

  • B Vitamins

    • The B vitamins are thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, B6, folate, and B12

    • Coenzyme is a non protein compound that combines with an inactive enzyme to form an active enzyme system

    • The metabolism of energy nutrients is one critical area requiring the joint action of enzymes of coenzymes

    • Without coenzymes, the enzymes that release energy from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins could not do their jobs

    • The B vitamins help provide the energy needed by every cell in the body

    • B vitamins are found in many of the same food sources so deficiencies are due to a shortage of several vitamins

    • B vitamins deficiency symptoms include nausea, weight loss, loss of appetite, severe exhaustion, irritability, depression, and forgetfulness, the heart, skin, and immune system could be affect to

    • Thiamin

      • Plays a vital role in energy metabolism

      • Required for normal functioning of the nerves and the muscles they control

      • More calories you burn means more thiamin needed

      • RDA is 1.2 milligrams per day for males

      • RDA is 1.0 milligrams per day for females

      • Whole-grain breads and cereal are sources of thiamin

      • Refined grain products are commonly enriched with these vitamins and iron

        • Enriched foods have had vitamins and minerals added back that were lost in the refining process

      • Other sources are pork products, dried beans, nuts, seeds, and liver

      • Body does not store much thiamin, you need to consume it daily

      • Beriberi is the thiamin deficiency disease

        • It means “I can’t” because the body cannot perform essential tasks to lives with thiamin

      • Alcoholism diminishes the body’s ability to absorb and use thiamin 

    • Riboflavin

      • Helps body release the energy from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins

      • Need it for healthy skin and normal eyesight

      • Need 1.3 milligrams per day for males 14+

      • Need 1.0 milligram per day for females 14-18 and 1.1 for 19+

      • Good sources: milk and milk products, enriched and whole-grain cereals, meats, poultry, and fish

      • Extra riboflavin is excreted in the urine

    • Niacin

      • Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide - different types

      • Involved in energy metabolism

      • Helps keep the skin and nervous system healthy and promotes normal digestions

      • Niacin in foods is available as a preformed vitamin and is also available in a provitamin form-tryptophan (amino acid in protein foods)

      • RDA in niacin equivalents (NE) - account for both the provitamin and preformed forms of niacin

      • RDA is 16 milligrams per day for males age 14-18

      • RDA is 14 milligrams per day for females age 14-18

      • Good sources: whole-grain, enriches breads and cereals, meat, poultry, and nuts

      • Pellagra is the niacin deficiency disease 

        • Symptoms are diarrhea, dermatitis (dry flaky skin), dementia (insanity), and death → 4 D’s

      • Can become toxic when too much is consumed from supplements

        • Painful rashes can occur

      • Don’t consume more than 30 milligrams daily

    • Pantothenic Acid

      • Promotes growth

      • Part of the coenzyme that is critical to the metabolism of the energy nutrients

      • Involved in synthesizing a number of vital substance in the body

      • AI is 5 milligrams per day for everyone over the age of 14

    • Biotin

      • Helps activate several enzymes involved in the release of energy from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins

      • Helps the body make fats and glycogen

      • AI is 25 micrograms per day for everyone 14-18 years old

      • Good sources: egg yolks, yeast, beans, nuts, cheese and liver

      • A biotin deficiency is similar to a thiamin deficiency

    • Vitamin B6

      • The diet must supply only 9 of the 20 amino acids that make up proteins because the body can make sufficient amounts of the other 11 amino acids but it couldn’t do that without the help of vitamin B6

      • Plays a key role in synthesizing dispensable amino acids

      • Is needed to convert the amino acid tryptophan to niacin

      • Helps make the protein that allows red blood cells to carry oxygen

      • Affects health of immune and nervous systems

      • RDA is 1.3 milligrams per day for males ages 14-50

      • RDA is 1.3 milligrams per day for females ages 14-18, 1.3 for 19+

      • RDA increases for everyone over 50

      • Good sources: meats, fish, poultry, dairy products, some fruits and vegetables

      • Don’t take more than 80 milligrams per day → can have irreversible nerve damage

    • Folate

      • Folic acid is a synthetic form of this vitamin

      • Main function of folate is to help synthesize DNA, without it cells cannot divide to form new cells

      • Women who are pregnant need this vitamin to give birth to a healthy baby (no neural tube damage)

      • RDA is 400 micrograms per day for everyone 14+

      • RDA is 600 micrograms per day for pregnant women

      • Good sources: dark green leafy vegetables, liver, legumes, oranges, cantaloupe, broccoli, enriched breads, flours, other grain products

      • Without sufficient folate, the red blood cells are fragile and cannot mature and carry oxygen so people feel tired and weak

      • Don’t take more than 800 micrograms of folate per day

    • Vitamin B12

      • Contains cobalt, so the vitamin is also called cyanocobalamin

      • Helps folate function

      • Needed for growth, maintenance of healthy nerve tissue, and formation of normal red blood cells, and release of energy from fat

      • RDA is 2.4 micrograms per for everyone over 14

      • Good sources: meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products

      • This vitamin does not naturally occur in food from plant sources

      • Pernicious anemia is caused by an inability to absorb the vitamin due to lack of a compound made in the stomach

        • This disease prevents red blood cells from maturing and diving properly

        • Injections of vitamin B12 can help the red blood cells to mature normally

    • Vitamin C

      • Referred to as ascorbic acid

      • Scurvy is a vitamin C deficiency disorder

      • Assists in the formation of collagen which is a protein substance in the connective tissue that hold cells together and is needed for healthy bones, cartilage, muscles and blood vessels

      • Collagen helps wounds heal quickly and helps maintain capillaries and gums

      • Increases iron and calcium absorption and plays a role in synthesizing thyroxine, the hormone that controls basal metabolic rate

      • Vital to body’s immune system

      • RDA is 75 milligrams per day for males 14-18, 90 milligrams for 19+

      • RDA is 65 milligrams per day for females 14-18, 75 milligrams for 19+

      • The body does not store vitamin C so daily intake is necessary

      • Smokers need more vitamin C (35 milligrams per day extra)

      • Good sources: citrus fruits, cantaloupe, and strawberries, sweet peppers, broccoli, cabbage and potatoes

      • Don’t take more than 1800 milligrams per day for 14-18 year olds

  • Nonvitamins and other non nutrients

    • Choline and inositol are similar to B vitamins

    • Laetrile (vitamin B17) and pangamic acid (vitamin B15)

    • Melatonin and ephedrine

  • Phytochemicals

    • Health-enhancing compounds in plant foods that are active in the body’s cells

    • Plants make hundreds of phyto-chemicals to protect themselves against such factors as ultraviolet light, oxidation and insects

    • One major group is flavonoids or polyphenols which contribute a strong antioxidant effect

      • Green tea, extra virgin olive oil and pomegranates are good sources

      • May prevent heart disease and some cancers

    • Good sources: variety of fruits, vegetables, herbs, spices, legumes, and whole grains

  • Probiotics are known as the good microorganisms found in foods, they help balance the bad microorganisms in your intestinal tract (yogurt)

  • Prebiotics are the nondigestible food ingredients that stimulate the growth of good microorganisms in the colon

    • Found in food like whole grains, onions bananas, garlic, honey, leeks, artichokes

  • Placebo effect is a change in the person's condition that is a result of the individual's belief that that treatment is working (even if its not)

  • Only specific groups need vitamin supplements (the majority of people don’t)

  • Preserving vitamins in food

    • Canned, frozen and dried foods are comparable to fresh in terms of vitamin content

    • Keep freezer temps below 0 degrees

    • Riboflavin is destroyed in light 

    • Most vitamins are located just under the skin of fresh produce so avoid paring and peeling if possible

    • Alkalis (like baking soda) destroys vitamins

Chapter 9 = Minerals: Regulators of Body Functions

  • Minerals

    • Need in small amounts and have no calories

    • Are inorganic elements so they are not compounds and don’t contain carbon

    • At least 21 mineral elements known to be essential to good health

    • 2 groups

      • Macrominerals or major minerals

        • Required in the diet in amounts of 100 or more milligrams per day

      • Microminerals or trace minerals

        • Required in amounts less than 100 milligrams per day

      • Ultratrace minerals in humans is unclear

    • All minerals make up only 4% of body mass

    • Functions

      • Helping enzymes complete chemical reactions

      • Becoming part of body components

      • Aiding normal nerve functioning and muscle contraction

      • Promoting growth

      • Regulating acid-base balance in the body

      • Maintaining body fluid balance

    • Macrominerals

      • Calcium

        • Largest and represents about 2% of body weight

        • Most stored in bones

        • Absorbed from small intestine to bloodstream then carried to bones

        • Calcium from food is deposited in your bones to build and strengthen them, which builds bone mass (extent to which the bone tissue is filled up with minerals

        • Healthy bone tissue is dense

        • Peak bone mass is late 20s and early 30s

        • Builds strong teeth

        • Helps muscles contract and relax and assist in blood-clotting processes

        • Help transmit nerve impulses

        • RDA is 1,300 milligrams per day for males and females 14-18, 1,000 for 19+

        • If your diet doesn’t contain enough calcium, your blood pulls calcium from your bones instead of the bloodstream and bones become less dense (brittle)

        • Higher bone density in youth are less likely to experience problems as they age

        • Osteoporosis is when bones become porous and fragile due to a loss of calcium and they become fragile and weak (women are more affected than men)

        • Menopause is when menstruation ends to to a decrease in production of estrogen (causes bone density to be lost quicker)

        • Amenorrhea means women just stop having menstrual periods (common with eating disorders and athletes who exercise a lot) (same effects as menopause)

        • Eating the right diet and exercising enough can help prevent loss of bone density 

        • Take calcium supplements only when necessary

      • Phosphorus

        • Second largest amount in the body and makes up 1.5% of body mass

        • Works to form strong bones and teeth

        • Helps maintain an acid-base balance in the blood

        • Part of ATP

        • In cell membrane and is part of some enzymes and every cell

        • RDA is 1,250 milligrams for everyone ages 14-18

        • Easily found in diet and absorbed efficiently

        • Too much in the diet can hinder the absorption of other minerals

        • Normal diet contain 2-4 more times of phosphorus than calcium

        • Too much phosphorus with too little calcium can contribute to osteoporosis

      • Magnesium

        • Most is found in the bones, some in muscle tissue, less than 2 ounces in the body

        • Involved in over 300 enzymatic reactions in the body and magnesium makes the enzymes active and lets them work more efficiently, also activated ATP to release energy

        • Helps lungs, nerves, and heart function properly

        • Important for bone health

        • RDA is 360 milligrams per day for women ages 14-18

        • RDA is 410 milligrams per day for males ages 14-18

        • Body can store magnesium so deficiency symptoms develop slowly

        • Deficiencies are often due to other health problems

        • Excess is mainley due to kidneys not working properly

        • Don’t take over 350 milligrams in supplements

      • Sulfur

        • Present in every cell of the body

        • High concentrations in your hair, nails and skin

        • Burned hair smells like sulfur

        • Part of the protein in your tissues

        • Part of the vitamins thiamin and biotin

        • Helps maintain a normal acid-base balance in the body

        • Helps the liver change toxins into harmless substances

        • No sulfur deficiencies or excess turned to toxicity

      • Sodium, Potassium, Chloride (electrolytes)

        • All three work as a team to perform similar functions (chloride is the form of the mineral chlorine found in the body)

        • Most sodium is found in fluids outside the cells

        • Most potassium is found within the cells

        • Chloride is found both inside and outside of cells

        • All three help regulate the fluid balance in cells and body compartments to function properly

        • Membrane that surrounds each cell is semipermeable which means that water can flow freely through the membrane but particles like minerals can’t

        • When the mineral concentration on each side of the membrane is different, water is drawn across the membrane, water moves from the side with fewer particles to help the side with more particles, which helps equalize the concentrations of mineral particles on each side of the membrane (process is osmosis)

        • Pumping mechanisms help draw potassium into body cells and sodium out of body cells, this controls the flow of water in and out of the cells as the water moves to balance mineral concentrations

        • All three help maintain the acid-base balance in the body

        • pH is used to express the measure of a substance’s acidity or alkalinity

          • Express on a scale from 0-14

          • Water and other neutral substances have a pH of 7

          • pH lower than 7 are acidic (acids)

          • pH higher than 7 are alkaline  (alkalis or bases)

        • Sodium and potassium combine with other elements to form alkaline compounds

        • Chloride combines with other elements to form acids

        • Potassium helps maintain a normal heartbeat

        • Chloride is a component of the hydrochloric acid in your stomach

        • AI for sodium is 1,500 milligrams per day

        • AI for chloride is 2,300 milligrams per day

        • 1 tsp of table salt is 2,000 milligrams of sodium and 3,000 milligrams of chloride

        • Lots of salt in processed foods (added sodium and chloride)

        • Recommended to reduce daily sodium intake to less than 2,300 milligrams

        • AI for potassium is 4,700 milligrams per day

        • Fluid loss is more likely to cause a deficiency in sodium

        • You lose some sodium through sweat 

        • Kidneys filter out excess sodium into urine

          • Unless you have sodium sensitive which means the kidneys have trouble getting rid of too much sodium

        • Sodium draws water into blood vessels which can cause problems in people with hypertension

        • Too little potassium can cause heart to malfunction

        • Potassium can be lost through fluid lose

        • Chloride deficiencies are rare but similar to sodium

    • Microminerals

      • Iron

        • Total amount in body is 1 tsp

        • Most is found in your blood, is part of hemoglobin which is a protein that helps red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to cells throughout the body

        • Hemoglobin also carries carbon dioxide from body tissues back to the lungs for excretion

        • Myoglobin is another iron-containing protein, it carries oxygen and carbon dioxide in muscle tissue

        • Bone marrow also stores some iron in the body which is used to build red blood cells

        • Liver releases new blood cells into the bloodstream

        • Red blood cells die after 3-4 months then the liver and spleen harvest the iron from the dead red blood cells and send it back to the bone marrow for storage until it's recycles

        • Helps release energy from macronutrients and needed to make new cells and several compounds in the body

        • RDA is 11 milligrams per day for males age 14-18, 8 for 18+

        • RDA is 18 milligrams per day for females age 14-18, 18 for 19+, drops to 8 for women over 50 (post menopausal)

        • 2 forms

          • Heme: found in hemoglobin and myoglobin of animal foods

          • Nonheme: found in plant and animal foods

          • Body absorbs heme iron more than nonheme

        • Vitamin C helps body absorb iron

        • Iron deficiency causes the body to make fewer red blood cells that contain less hemoglobin (decreased ability to carry oxygen to body tissues) → iron deficiency anemia which is the most common type of anemia

        • Women are more likely because they lose blood every month through menstruation and don’t get enough from their diets

        • Iron overload is when you absorb too much iron, too much is toxic and can damage the liver (too much iron from supplements)

      • Zinc

        • Aids in body growth and sexual development 

        • Serves as a cofactor for many enzymes

          • Cofactor is a substance that acts with enzymes to increase enzyme activity

        • Necessary for healing wounds and acid-base balance

        • Affects body’s storage of insulin 

        • Helps with metabolism of protein and alcohol

        • Resists infections

        • RDA is 9 milligrams per day for females age 14-18, 8 for 19+

        • RDA is 11 milligrams per day for males age 14+

        • Zinc deficiency can hinder growth and sexual development 

        • Excess zinc leading to toxicity is from use of supplements

      • Iodine

        • Concentrated in the thyroid gland, it produces a hormone called thyroxine which helps control your body’s metabolism

        • Plays a role in metabolic functions

        • RDA is 150 micrograms per day for everyone 14+

        • Iodized salt is a common source

        • Deficiencies cause the thyroid gland to to work harder to produce thyroxine which causes an enlargement of the thyroid gland called a goiter (also caused when iodine excess)

      • Fluorine

        • Important for strong bones and teeth

        • Helps prevent tooth decay

        • AI is 3 milligrams per day for females 14+

        • AI is 3 milligrams per day for males 14-18, 4 for 19+

        • Teas, seaford, and seaweed are the main food sources

        • High intake can cause teeth to develop a spotty discoloration called fluorosis

      • Selenium

        • Works with vitamin E in an antioxidant capacity 

        • Assist an enzyme that helps reduce damage to cell membranes due to exposure to oxygen

        • RDA is 55 micrograms for everyone age 14+

        • Deficiency causes heart disease 

        • Excess is toxic causes nausea, hair loss, and nerve damage

      • Copper

        • Helps body make hemoglobin and collagen and helps many enzymes work

        • RDA is 890 micrograms per day for everyone age 14-18

        • Deficiencies are uncommon but result in anemia

        • Excess can damage liver

      • Chromium

        • Works with insulin in glucose metabolism

        • AI is 35 micrograms per day for males age 14-18

        • AI is 24 micrograms per day for females age 14-18

        • Deficiencies lead to impaired glucose metabolism

        • Excess can cause kidney failure

      • Manganese

        • Helps many enzymes work

        • Plays a role in carbohydrate metabolism and normal skeletal development

        • AI is 2.2 milligrams per day for males 14-18

        • AI is 1.6 milligrams per day for females 14-18

        • Excess can be toxic

      • Molybdenum

        • Essential part of several enzymes

        • RDA is 43 micrograms per day for everyone 14-18

        • Excess can affect reproductive system

      • Trace minerals: arsenic, boron, nickel, silicon, vanadium (high risk of toxicity)

    • The mineral content of plant foods depends on the soil, water, and fertilizers used to grow them (also from animal sources)

    • Most minerals located in outer layer of fruits and vegetables

    • Best sources are meat, fish and poultry

    • Your body doesn’t absorb all the minerals you consume, some are excreted through the urine

    • Minerals can be lost when foods are washed or cooked in liquid

Chapter 10 = Water: The Forgotten Nutrient

  • Water

    • In every body cell

    • Presence determines the shape, size, and firmness of the cells

    • Adult body weight is 50-75% water

    • Fat tissue is about 20-35% water

    • Muscle tissue is about 75% water

    • Total % of body weight from water depends on the ratio of fat to lean body tissue

      • Higher % of lean tissue have a higher % of water weight

    • Water is the main compound in body fluids

    • Water is needed for body to function properly

    • Functions

      • Helps chemical reactions take place

      • Carries nutrients to and waste products from cells throughout body

      • Reduces friction between surfaces

      • Controls body temperature

      • Breaks down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins for energy

      • Includes reactions that result in formation of new compounds such as the making of dispensable amino acids

      • Helps some enzymes perform their functions

      • Dilutes concentrated substances in the body

    • Is a reactant in many chemical reactions in the body

      • Reactant is a substance that enters into a chemical reaction and is changed by it

    • Is a solvent

      • Solvents are liquids in which substances can be dissolved (water can dissolve most substances)

    • Blood is primarily made of water

    • Plays a role in removing waste through perspiration, exhaled water vapor, feces

    • Is a lubricant

      • A lubricant is something that reduces friction between surfaces (water is an excellent lubricant

    • Water also cushions vital tissues and organs to protect them from injury

    • Blood vessels expand to release heat and constrict to conserve heat (when blood flowing near your skin surface)

    • Cellular water balance:

      • Too much water in a cell causes it to burst

      • Not enough water in a cell causes it to collapse

      • Intracellular water is the water inside the cells

      • Extracellular water is the water outside the cells

      • Water can move freely across the cell membrane

    • Water intake:

      • Thirst is the body’s first signal that it needs water

      • Recommended amount for age 14-18 is 2.3 liters for females and 3.3 liters for males

      • 2 ½ to 3 ½ quarts of liquids per day to replace lost body fluids

      • Dark yellow urine: not enough water

      • Light colored urine: enough water

      • Some groups need more water

      • 12% of your water needs are met through metabolism

    • Water loss:

      • You lose about 2-3 quarts of fluid every day

      • Most body fluids are lost through urine

      • Not enough water increases risk of kidney stones

      • Healthy urine output is 1-2 quarts per day or more

      • Fluids are lost through sweat, moisture from breathing, bowel wastes

      • Environmental conditions, level of physical activity, medications, and health status can influence how much fluid is lost and needs to be replaced

      • When exercising, drink plenty of water to replenish the fluids you lose through sweating

      • Diuretics increase urine production

      • Dehydration is a state in which the body contains a lower-than-normal amount of body fluids

      • Athletic performance levels decline after a 3% loss in water weight

    • Water intoxication

      • Rare condition caused by drinking too much water and consuming too few electrolytes

      • Sodium loss through sweating must be replaced to maintain electrolyte balance

    • Fortified water is plain water enhanced with specific nutrients or supplements intended to aid or improve health or energy outcomes (sports drinks and energy drinks → have downsides as well)

Part 4: Nutrition Management: A Lifelong Activity

Chapter 11 = Nutrition Across the Life Span

  • Life cycle is a series of growth and development stages through which people pass from before birth and until death

    • Pregnancy and lactation, infancy, toddlerhood, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood

    • Extra protein is needed for women when pregnant

    • Pregnant women need increase amount of more vitamins especially folate (helps brain and spinal cord develop properly), also need extra B12 to make red blood cells, also many other vitamins

    • Normal weight women gain 25-35 lb of weight during pregnancy

    • Exercise is recommended to help to help with pregnancy

    • Breastfeeding milk is almost always recommended

    • Certain foods containing mercury (types of fish) can damage the fetal brain and nervous system

    • Avoid pesticides sprayed on food

    • Women should limit caffeine during pregnancy, and avoid alcohol completely

    • Infants and toddlers have proportionately greater nutritional needs than adults (infants grow at the faster rate so they need more)

    • Newborns need to be fed every 2-3 hours

    • Most babies require about 6 feeding per day after the first few weeks

    • Breast milk to specifically designer to nourish humans and it has antibodies to help protect babies against diseases

    • The next best thing to breastmilk is iron-fortified formula

  • When fully grown, males have 2 times the muscle tissue and 2/3 as much fat tissue as females

  • More active teens need more calories than less active teens

Chapter 12 = The Energy Balancing Act

  • Energy is the ability to do work

    • Balancing energy involves equating the amount of energy you take in with the amount of energy you use (calorie balance)

    • Direct calorimetry is the technique used for measuring energy from the heat produced directly by the food

    • Fat produces more than twice the energy of carbohydrates or protein

    • Calorie density is the concentration of energy in a food

    • Fats are calorie dense foods

    • You need energy for basal metabolism, physical activity, and the thermic effect of food (these account for the calories you expend each day)

      • Basal metabolism is the amount of energy required to support the operation of all internal body systems except digestion (keeps body alive even when resting)

        • Basal metabolic rate is the rate at which the body uses energy for basal metabolism

        • Women need 0.4 calorie per pound of body weight per hour

        • Men need 0.5 caloire per pound of body weight per hour

        • Basal metabolism is the largest part of energy output for most people

      • Resting metabolic rate is a similar method but RMR data is collected four hours after fiood has been eaten or significent physical activtiy while BMR date collection oocurs after 12 hour fast in a controlled environment while the individual is resting             

      • A person with a larger proportion of msucle tissue will have a high BMR than someone with more fat tissue

        • This is because it takes more calories to maintain muscle tissue than fat

      • There is an approximate 5% decrease in BMR every 10 years past 30                                                                                       

    • Indirect calorimetry measures the person’s oxygen intake and carbon dioxide output while performing a specific activity

    • Thermic effect of food (TEF) is the enrgy required to complete the processes of digestion, absorption, and metabolism (energy needed to extract energy from food)

      • 5-10% of energy outpit is for the thermic effect of food

      • 60-65% of energy output is for basal metabolism

      • 25-35% fo enrgy output is for physical activity (more for athletes)

    • Energy inbalance occurs when a person consumes too few or too many calories for their energy needs

      • Energy deficieny is when energy intake is less than energy output

        • The body first respones to this by uses energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins in food, but if there is not enough food energy available the body draws on stores of energy

        • The first store the body turns to is the liver glycogen (the stored form of glucose from carbohydrated for use by nonmuscle tissue

        • About 4-6 hours when glycigen stores are depleted, the body will draw on fatty tissue for energy (weight loss occurs as fat is used)

        • Unfortunately, the nervous system cannot use fat as a fuel source, it requires glucose which cannot be abtained from fat

        • The body can use amino acids from proteins in lean body tissues to make glucose to feed the nervous system tissue

        • In order for the body to use this protein, it has to break down muscle and organ tissue, and since muscle tissue is 75% water it causes a rapid weight loss due to loss of body fluids (it also causes muscle weakness and can eventually lead to a number of dangerous health consequences

        • When carbohydrated are not available, the body will take steps to limit muscle deteriortion, it will slowly begin to use another method to feed the nervous system

        • The body will change fatty acids into compounts called ketone bodies and the nervous system can use ketone bodies to meet some of its energy needs (reach nervous system through the bloodstream)

        • An abnormal buildup of ketone bodies in the bloodstream is called ketosis and it can be harmful because it changes the acid-base balance of the blood

        • Carbohydrates are the preferred fuel for nerve and brain cells to function

        • Sufficient carbohydrate intake will cause the body to use fat stores, not muscle for energy

      • Energy excess occurs when energy intake is greater than energy output

        • Excess calories can all be stores in adipose tissue

        • An excess of 3,500 calories in the diet leads to 1 pound of stored body fat

        • Consuming an extra 25 calories per days adds to about 2.5lb each year

      • Using body mass index (BMI) to find healthy weight for your height (best used for people ages 20+, there are exceptions)

        • (weight/height^2) x 703 = BMI

        • BMI under 18.5 is considered underweight

        • BMI between 18.5-24.9 is considered healthy weight

        • BMI between 25-29.9 is considered overweight

        • BMI over 30 is considered obese

      • Body composition is the proportion of lean body tissue to fat tissue in the body

        • Fat-free mass (FFM) found in the body includes the water, protein, and minerals found in organs, muscle, and bone

        • Body fat of 18-24% for males is healthy

        • Body fat of 25-31% for females is healthy

      • Skinfold test used to measure the thickness of a fold of skin

        • Measures the subcutaneous fat which is the fat that lied underneath the skin and accounts for about ½ the fat in the body

      • Bioelectrical impedance is the process that measures the body’s resistance to a low-energy electrical current, lean muscle conducts electrical energy and fat does not

      • The loction of body fat affects health

        • Fat stored in the abdomen poses a greater risk than fat stored in the buttocks, hips, and thighs

        • Fat around waist increases the liver’s production of LDL 

Chapter 13 = Healthy Weight Management

  • Excess weight due to muscle is not a problem, excess weight due to extra body fat is a problem

    • Childhood obesity and overall obesity has increases over the years

  • Being underweight has many problems as well

  • Weight status is how much you weight and your ability to gain and lose weight

    • Heredity:

      • Genes set the stage for body shape and affects basal metabolic rate

      • Two hormones involve in appetite regulation and energy expenditure are leptin and ghrelin

        • Leptin is produced in the body fat cells, as the number of fat cells increase, more leptin can be produced, the circulating leptin enter the brain and triggers a reduction in appetite (obese people can become resistant to this hormone)

        • Ghrelin is produced in the stomach, overweight people produce higher levels of this hormones, it stimulates the appetite and encourages fat production and body growth (tells you you are hungry), for healthy people it helps to stabilize bodyweight

    • Eating habits develop early in life and are hard to break

    • Environmental cues is an event or situation around you that triggers you to eat

      • The sight, taste, and smells of foods are common cues that stimulate eating, also the the time of day and social settings

    • Psychological factors can also influence how much you eat

      • Boredom, depression, tension, fear and loneliness may lead to errativ eating patterns

    • Activity level affects weight status by influencing the calories out side of the energy balance equation

  • Math of losing 1 pound of fat

    • 1 pound of fat is about 3,500 calories

    • To lose 1 pound of fat you have to create an energy deficit of 3,500 over the span of 1-2 weeks (deficit of 250-500 calories per day)

  • Crash diets or fasting is not healthy in the long rum (most of the weight lost is due to fluid loss

  • Weight cycling can occur from trying to follow a diet, then end up overeating, then go into a fasting period (weight fluctuates too much)

  • There are a lot of diet scams out there that are not healthy

  • Losing weight slowly is the better option over a “quick” fix

  • Don’t try to lose 1-2 lbs of fat per week

  • If trying to gain weight, exercise to necessary in order to gain muscle and not fat

Chapter 14 = Eating Disorders

  • The emotional and physical problems associated with eating disorders can have life-threatening consequences (most common in teenage and young adult women)

  • 3 most common eating disorders: (can be fatal)

    • Anorexia nervosa: 

      • A person refusing to maintain a minimal normal body weight

      • Purposely do not eat enough due to a variety of reasons

      • BMI of less than 15%

      • Causes a variety of issues: loss of menstrual cycle, loss of insulation from body fat to keep body warm, hair loss, rough dry skin, etc.

      • Bone density decreases, blood pressure and pulse rate drop and body organs begin to shrivel

    • Bulimia nervosa:

      • 2 main behaviors:

      • Bingeing which the the uncontrollable eating of huge amounts of food

      • Purging which is the clearing of food from the digestive system through forcing themselves to vomit (abuse laxatives, or enemas to rid their bodies of food) (also exercising excessively or long periods of fasting to prevent weight gain)

      • Many people go back and forth between these 2 behaviors (cycle)

    • Binge eating:

      • Involves repeatedly eating very large amounts of food until they are uncomfortably full

    • Other eating disorders are just as harmful

  • Many things can lead to eating disorders

    • Society pressure to be “thin” (many thin actors)

    • Psychological influences (poor mental health and self-esteem) (many teens want reassurance from others)

    • Genetic influences like hormonal imbalances and other medical causes

    • Athletes are at a greater risk from the nature of their sport (like wrestling), or how being lighter and smaller will make it easier (gymnastics)

    • Female athlete triad: disorder eating, amenorrhea, osteoporosis

      • When female athletes train hard and eat little to maintain a weight goal, it can cause her to stop menstruating resulting in hormonal imbalances which can lead to losing bone mass and then fractured (lack of adequate nutrients lead to slow healing of fractures)

  • Eating disorders have long recovery times

  • Many people get outpatient treatment (not in a hospital) and some are prescribed antidepressants which alter the nervous system to relieve depression

  • Relapses can occur often

Part 5: Other Aspects of Wellness

Chapter 15 = Staying Physically Active - A Way of Life

  • Physical fitness is a level of physical condition in which all body systems function together efficiently

    • Aerobic activities use large muscles and are done at a moderate steady pace for longer periods of time

      • Aerobic means oxygen and these activities an improve heart and lung health

    • Anaerobic activities is where your muscles are using oxygen faster than your heart and lungs can deliver it

      • Use short, intense bursts of energy that make you have to catch your breath

      • Muscles rely on a limited supply of glucose and energy is released quickly

      • Can help you build strength, power and speed

    • Posture is the position of you body when standing or sitting (strengthening back and core muscles can help maintain posture)

    • 30 minutes of moderately intense activities will burn about 200 calories

    • Helps prevent many diseases

    • Improves mental health

  • Five components are used to measure the impact of physical fitness on you health:

    • Cardiorespiratory fitness

      • Body ability to take in adequate amounts of oxygen and carry it through the blood to body cells

      • Goal of aerobic exercise is to increase your heart and breathing rate

    • Muscular endurance

      • Ability to use  a groups of muscles over and over without becoming tired

    • Strength

      • Ability of the muscles to move objects  (how much weight you can lift)

    • Flexibility

      • Ability to move your joints through a full range of motion

    • Body composition

      • The percentage of different types of tissues in the body

  • Glucose is the body’s chief source of energy, and after 20 minutes of aerobic activity the begins to use fat for energy

  • Six components of physical fitness:

    • Power

      • Ability to do maximum work in a short time

      • Requires strength and speed

    • Agility

      • Ability to change the position of your body with speed and control

    • Balance

      • Ability to keep your body in an upright position while standing or moving

      • Requires concentration, coordination, and muscle control

    • Coordination

      • Ability to integrate the use of two or more parts of your body

    • Speed

      • The quickness with which you are able to complete a motion

    • Reaction time

      • The amount of time it takes you to respond to a signal once you receive the signal

    • Should be able to do all areas

  • Exercise affects the cardiovascular system in several complex easy to improve overall heart health

    • Exercise helps develop cardiorespiratory fitness, one indication of this is a slower heartbeat → the heart beats slower because it is able to work more efficiently and can pump more blood with each beat (less strain on heart)

    • Exercise affects heart health through its impact on blood lipids, a high level of LDL indicates a high risk of CHD, but a high level of HDL lowers the risk → regular exercise (with diet low in saturated fats and cholesterol) reduces LDL and increases HDL

    • Exercise improves heart health by lowering blood pressure, and encourages the formation of extra branches in the arteries of the heart which increase blood flow and allow the heart to work more efficiently

  • Heart rate or pulse rate is the number of times your heart beats per minute

    • Maximum heart rate is the highest speed at which you heart muscle is able to contract (220-age = maximum heart rate)

    • Target heart rate zone is the range of heartbeats per minute at which the heart muscle receives the best workout (60-90% of maximum heart rate)

  • Successful exercise program

    • Identify which component of fitness you want to improve and think of activities that can help improve that area (select activities you are interested in)

    • Write down your goals

    • Exercise at a convenient time

    • Always have warm up period (5-10 minutes to gradually increase heart rate), workout period (20+ minutes), and cool down period (body needs to slowly return it its pre-exercise state

      • During exercise your heart pumps extra blood to your muscles to meet their increased demand for oxygen and energy, the action of your muscles keeps circulating back to the heart, if you stop muscle action too quickly the extra blood temporarily collects in your muscles which reduces the amount of oxygen-rich blood available for the heart to pump to the brain and dizziness occurs

  • Gaining physical fitness is a building process and involves 3 key factors

    • Frequency is how often you exercise

    • Intensity is how hard you exercise

    • Duration is how long an exercise lasts

    • Build these 3 components up over time

Chapter 16 = Eating for Sports Performance

  • The body first converts carbohydrates and fats into an energy source that can be used by the muscle 

    • This energy is produced either in the presence or absence of oxygen

    • An aerobic energy production system supplies energy in the presence of oxygen

    • Anaerobic energy production systems supply energy in the absence of oxygen

    • The anaerobic energy production system is the first to supply energy when your body begins as activity

      • The first second of an activity are fueled by the very small but essential supply of energy that is stored in the muscle ready for immediate use, at the same time the system begins converting the glycogen that is stored in the muscle to glucose, the glucose is then rapidly converted to an energy source the muscle can use

    • The anaerobic system supplies energy quickly, but cannot sustain this rate of energy production for long, therefore the body turns to the aerobic energy production system for fuel

    • The aerobic system is slower to respond to the body’s need for energy because it requires the presence of oxygen, the oxygen must be inhaled and transported through the blood to the muscle which takes time, but it can last for hours

    • Unlike the anaerobic system, the aerobic system can access and utilize the energy stored in fat as well as that found in glucose

    • In the absence of oxygen, an incomplete breakdown of glucose results in a buildup of a product called lactic acid in the muscles

      • The lactic acid changes the body’s acid-base balance

      •  As a result you experience a burning sensation and fatigue in the muscles

    • Some sports require athletes to use their muscles for long periods of time, these endurance athletes may require sustained muscle efforts for several hours at a time 

      • These athletes train to improve the muscles ability to use glucose which allows the body to use more fat for fuel and conserve glycogen

      • Trained muscles also become more tolerant of lactic acid, so soreness and fatigue will not occur as quickly

  • Nutrient needs of an athlete

    • People who weigh more, burn more calories during an activity because more energy is required to move a greater body mass

    • An athlete needs more calories than a non-athlete because they burn more calories during exercise 

    • Athletes should take in about 60-65% carbohydrates, 20-25% unsaturated fats, 20-25% protein for daily caloric intake

    • Athletes may need slightly more protein to build and maintain muscle, and to meet energy needs

    • Protein rich foods provide the amino acids you need to build and repair tissues

    • 91 grams of protein for females per day

    • 116 grams of protein for males per day

    • The greatest amount of muscle growth occurs when protein intake is about 15% of daily food intake

    • Carbohydrate loading is a technique used to trick the muscles into storing more glycogen for extra energy

      • Involves eating a diet moderate in carbohydrates for a few days then during the 3 days before a sports event, an athlete consumes a high-carbohydrate diet, the increase in carbohydrates is coupled with a decrease in training intensity

      • Some problems associated with this are water retention, digestion distress, muscle stiffness, and sluggishness

    • Rest days help build up the glycogen stores you need

    • Athletes need plenty of vitamins and minerals in their diet so their body can convert carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into energy

  • Female athletes

    • Low weight and body fat are related to menstrual cycle abnormalities

    • Women with very low amounts of body fat and weight have delayed menarche (when menstrual cycle begins)

    • Loss of a menstrual cycle (amenorrhea) causes the production of important hormones involved in the development of strong bones to be reduced, which causes extremely low bone density which can lead to fractures

  • Meal planning for athletes

    • Never skip breakfast

    • Snack can make up 20-50% of daily calories

    • Day of competition

      • Right before competition, avoid very large meals because the require too much energy to digest

      • Instead, eat a high-carbohydrate meal within 3-4 hours before competition, avoid high protein, high fat steak dinners 

      • Avoid bulky and fatty foods on competition day

      • High-fiber foods shouldn’t be consumed in large portions

      • Avoid foods high in fat

      • Choose foods high in carbohydrates and low in fat

      • Never eat foods you have never tried before prior to a game

      • Frequent smaller meals are better before competitions

      • Snacking on food can help to boost your energy levels

      • General goal to to consume about 30-100 grams of carbohydrates per hour providing about 120 to 400 calories

      • Sometimes, foods in liquid form are easier to digest

      • Fluid replacement is essential for avoiding dehydration

    • Recovery is the phase after exercise when glycogen stores are replenished to pre-exercise levels

      • Eating within 30 minutes after an activity is the best way to replenish muscle glycogen, body water, and electrolytes

        • Include water, a carbohydrate with a high glycemic index that enters the bloodstream quickly, a source of high quality protein, and sodium

      • After two have a meal of mixed carbohydrates, fats, and protein, as well as hydration and an adequate amount of sleep to fully recover

    • Drinking enough fluids to essential to good performance

      • If fluid levels drop too low, dehydration results

      • Athletes need to drink water even if they don’t feel thirsty

      • Cool water helps lower body temperature and it empties from the stomach more quickly than any other fluid which prevents cramping

      • Athletes can lose sodium when they sweat, so some athletes benefit from a drink that contains sodium, chloride and potassium

  • Weight concerns for athletes

    • 10-15% body fat is good for male athletes

    • 18-24% body fat is good for female athletes (under 17 = amenorrhea)

    • Most teen male athletes need at least 3,000 calories per day

    • Most female athletes need at least 2,200 calories per day

    • Never try to lose more than 2lb per week

Chapter 17 = Maintaining Positive Social and Mental Health

  • Physical, mental, and social health all affect one another

  • Psychologist Abraham Maslow created a triangle hierarchy that shows that the needs at the base must be at least partially met before addressing needs at the next level

    • 1st (base) level: physical needs → water, food, clothing, shelter, rest

    • 2nd level: safety/security needs → freedom from danger, financial security

    • 3rd level: love and acceptance needs → affections and approval

    • 4th level: esteem needs → self-respect, respect from others

    • 5th level: self-actualization needs → reaching personal goals, helping others 

  • A lack of balance in your life can lead to burnout (lack of energy and motivation to work toward goals)

Chapter 18 = Stress and Wellness

  • Negative stress is harmful stress (fear)

  • Positive stress motivates you to accomplish your goals

  • Fight or flight response

    • Physical reactions triggered by the release of stress hormones into your bloodstream

    • You breathe harder and faster to bring more oxygen into your body

    • Your heart beats more rapidly to quickly pump that oxygen out to the muscles

    • Your liver releases glucose and fat cells release fat into the bloodstream

    • Your blood pressure increase to speed the glucose and fat to the muscles for use as energy

    • These reactions are intended to prepare your body for action (defend against the source of stress or run from it)

    • If it is a source of stress that does not require a fight or flight response, the increase in your heart rate and blood pressure serve only to strain your heart and blood vessels, the extra fat released into your bloodstream may accumulate in your arteries which can increase your risk for some diseases

  • Immune system response to stress

    • Your immune system defenses can become lowered during periods of stress

    • Lack of sleep due to stress can further depress your immune system

  • Effects on eating habits

    • When stress hormones are circulating the bloodstream, the body treats digesting food as a low priority

    • Some people cannot eat when stressed because they are so focused on the source of their stress and some experience and upset stomach

  • Biofeedback is the technique of focusing on involuntary bodily processes in order to control them (if you are breathing hard focus on trying to calm yourself down to get back to breathing normally)

  • Relaxation techniques

    • Deep breathing

    • Tensing up muscles than relaxing them

  • Positive self-talk can help reduce stress as well

  • Preventing stress before it happens (good time management)

  • Eating a nutritious diet, exercising regularly, and getting enough sleep all help reduce stress

Chapter 19 = Drug and Supplement Use and Your Health

  • Drug: any substance other than food or water that changes the way the body or mind operates

  • Medicine: a drug used to treat an ailment or improve a disabling condition

  • Ergogenic aids: any substance designed to enhance strength and endurance

  • Many prescription drugs have side effects (a reaction that differs from the drug’s desired effect)

  • Most drugs have 3 names:

    • Chemical: describes the chemical composition of the drug

    • Generic drug name: the officially accepted name of the drug

    • Brand/trade name: name a manufacturer used to promote a drug product

  • When the FDA approves a new drug for sale, the manufacturer has exclusive marketing rights to it for 17 years (during this time, the drug is available only under the company’s brand name), after that time, other manufacturers can sell the product under their own brand name or under the generic name (true for both prescription and OTC drugs)

  • A generic drug is a drug available under its generic name

    • Acetaminophen is a generic name for a common OTC drug

    • You can buy it labeled Tylenol, anacin, datril or any other brand name currently being used

    • Generic drugs contain the same active ingredients as comparable trade name drugs so they are just as safe and effective as the brand name products

    • Brand name drugs usually cost 20-70% more than generic drugs

  • Many drug manufacturers produce a drug product in various forms like powder, liquid, tablets, caplets and capsules

  • Food-drug interactions may affect the body differently when consumed together than when consumed separately (supplements included)

  • The amount and type of liquid consumed with drugs can affect how fast they dissolve and are absorbed (water is the best liquid to take with drugs because it allows them to dissolve and be absorbed quickly)

  • Food in the stomach slows the absorption of many drugs so it's important to read and follow instructions about taking drugs with food

  • Drugs also interfere with nutrient absorption (ex. Long-term use of antibiotics taken to kill the bacteria causing infection can also kill the helpful bacteria that make vitamin K)

  • The most commonly misused and abused drugs are psychoactive drugs because they affect the central nervous system which in turn interferes with normal brain activity and can affect moods and feelings (stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens)

  • Stimulants speed up the nervous system, they produce feeling of keen alertness and boundless energy (caffeine is a mild stimulant drug, too much is not good)

    • Continued use of drugs can result in the development of a tolerance, which leads to someone taking larger doses of a drug to feel the affects, the larger doses are dangerous and can lead to overdose

    • Smoking is a major contributor to heart disease, nicotine increase the heart rate and carbon monoxide a poisonous gas in cigarette smoke decreases the amount of oxygen available in the blood, which makes the heart work harder

    • Caffeine, amphetamines, cocaine, and nicotine are common stimulants

  • Depressants are drugs that decrease the activity of the central nervous system, they slow down certain body functions and reactions

    • Alcohol can be absorbed through cells in the mouth and the walls of the stomach which is why a person can feel the effects so quickly

    • The liver can only metabolize alcohol so fast, and nothing can speed up the process

    • Alcohol affects brain function in many ways

    • Cirrhosis is a liver disease that results from drinking too much alcohol which leads to the cells in the liver to die and the organ stops working 

    • Barbiturates create a feeling of drowsiness (prescribed for people who have trouble sleeping)

    • Tranquilizers can calm emotions and relax muscles (prescribed for people who are feeling overly anxious or having muscle pain)

    • Both of these drugs can be addictive

    • Either of these drugs combined with alcohol can intensify the effects and the mixture can be deadly

    • Inhalants are substances that are inhaled for their mind-numbing effects

    • Narcotics are drugs that bring on sleep, relieve pain, and dull the senses (most are made from opiates)

      • Opiates include codeine, morphine, opium, and heroin

      • Herodin is the most addictive and dangerous drug known today, it is illegal in the U.S. even for medical use

    • Hallucinogens cause the mind to create images that do not really exist

      • Include marijuana, ecstasy, LSD, PCP, and designer drugs

      • THC is the main mood-altering ingredient in marijuana, it passes from the bloodstream to the brain, and it is fat-soluble so it is attracted to the body’s fat tissues where it can be stored for long periods

  • Anabolic steroids are artificial hormones used to build a more muscular body 

    • Anabolic means tissue building

    • These steroids are a synthetic version of the male sex hormone testosterone (used to help build muscles for both males and females)

    • These are illegal to use and have many dangerous side effects

  • Supplements do not require approval of the FDA

Part 6: Making Informed Choices

Chapter 20 = Keeping Food Safe

  • Foodborne illness occurs when food is contaminated 

    • Contaminant is an undesirable substance that unintentionally gets into food

    • The most common contaminants are microorganisms

    • Organisms that cause foodborne illness are called pathogens (bacteria, parasites, viruses, and fungi)

      • Bacteria is a single-celled microorganism that lives in soil, water, and the bodies of plants and animals 

        • All food contain bacteria but not all types are harmful

        • Some cause sickness by irritating the lining of the small intestine

        • Others produce toxins or poisons that cause illness

      • Parasite is an organism that lives off another organism called a host

        • Protozoa are single-celled animals (some types are parasites that cause sickness through contaminated water polluted with animal/human feces)

      • Virus is a disease-causing agent that is the smallest type of life-form

        • Main cause of foodborne illness

      • Fungi are organisms that vary greatly in size and structure and are classified as plants

        • Mold and yeast are fungi (yeast infected food smells like alcohol)

    • Spoiled food has lost nutritional value and quality characteristics like flavor and texture due to decay

    • Contaminated food has become unfit to eat due to the introduction of undesirable substances

    • Natural toxins are the substances many plants produce to defend themselves against insects, birds and animals (don’t eat wild berries etc.)

    • Chemicals in food include pesticides and food additives

    • Pesticide residues and environmental contaminants are also harmful

    • Yeast: used as a leavening agent which is a substance used to produce a gas that cause batter or dough to rise

    • Never leave food out of the refrigerator for more than 2 hours (bacteria thrives in temp 40-140 degrees F

    • Fridge should be 40 degrees F and freezer should be 0 degrees F

    • The cold slows the growth of bacteria

    • Dampness encourages bacterial growth (also sponges)

    • Don’t place food next to cleaning supplies (toxic chemicals)

    • Always check internal thermometers for cooking meats

    • Store hot food at 140 degrees F

  • Risks of foodborne illness

    • Infants, young children, pregnant women, older adults, substance abusers and people with immune disorders at the greatest risk

    • Weak immune systems affect ability to fight off illness

    • Stomach acid reduced the number of bacteria in our intestinal tracts

    • HACCP is a hazard analysis critical control point system (used to control risk as food moves through the food supply chain)

  • FDA is in charge of safety of all foods except meat, poultry and eggs

  • USDA and FSIS are in charge of poultry, meat, and egg products

  • NMFS is in charge of fish products

  • EPA is in charge of pesticides

  • FTC is in charge of food advertisements and nutritional value of products

  • State and local agencies are also involved

Chapter 21 = Meal Management

  • Offer a variety in your meal plans

  • Balance out flavors

  • Color appeals to the eye

  • Variety of textures

  • Vary shapes and sizes of food

  • Vary temperatures of food

  • Can have same meal in different portion sizes for different people

  • Avoid deep fat frying any food

  • Reduction is the process of cooking a liquid with the intent of losing volume through evaporation (it concentrates the flavors and thickens the liquid without using fat or starches)

  • Cook fruits and vegetables in as little water as possible to help preserve water soluble nutrients

  • Meal planning can reduce costs

Chapter 22 = Become an Informed Consumer

  • Irradiation is the treatment of approved food with ionizing energy (lasts longer)

  • COOL is the country of origin labeling law

Look up any updates on chat gpt for the newer version

  • DASH eating plan is the dietary approaches to stop hypertension which emphasizes strategies to manage and prevent hypertension through diet

  • CDRR is aimed at reducing the risk of chronic diseases

  • USDA look up the newer guidelines???

  • Gut microbiome and probiotics 

  • Plant based diets and sustainability

  • Updated management for diabetes or cardiovascular disease

  • Role in nutrition in mental health and cognitive function

  • Food labeling for bioengineered foods

  • 9 major food allergens:

    • Milk

    • Eggs

    • Fish

    • Crustacean shellfish

    • Tree nuts

    • Peanuts

    • Wheat

    • Soybeans

    • Sesame (added in 2023 under the FASTER act)

Nutrition and Diet Therapy by Ruth A. Roth

Section 1: Fundamentals of Nutrition

Chapter 1 = The Relationship of Nutrition and Health

  • Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins are organic nutrients

  • Minerals and water are inorganic nutrients

  • Malnutrition can be cause by overnutrition and undernutrition

Chapter 2 = Planning a Healthy Diet

  • Consume 3 cups per day of fat-free or low fat milk or other milk products

  • Foods high in saturated fats, trans fat and cholesterol increase the risk of coronary heart disease due to high blood lipid levels

  • Keep fat intake between 20-35% of daily calories (consume mainly polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats)

  • Added sugar list:

    • Corn syrup, dextrose, fructose, glucose, lactose, malt syrup, maltose, sucrose, fruit juice concentrate, etc.

  • Mypyramid food plan

    • Grains, vegetables, fruit, milk yogurt cheese, meat fish eggs nuts, fats oils sweets groups

    • Whole grain should be at least ½ of grain calorie intake

  • Flavonoids are naturally occurring water-soluble plant pigments that act as antioxidants

  • Nutrition labels required on food packaging:

    • Total calories, calories from fat, total fat, saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, sodium, total carbohydrates, dietary fiber, sugars, protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron (others can be added)

Chapter 3 = Digestion, Absorption, and Metabolism

  • Metabolism is the use of the food by the body after digestion which results in energy

  • Peristalsis is the rhythmical movement of the intestinal tract which moves chyme along

  • Hydrolysis is the addition of water resulting in the breakdown of the molecule

  • Bolus is the food in the mouth that is ready to be swallowed

  • Salivary amylase (ptyalin) is the enzyme secreted by the salivary glands to act on starch

  • Amylase breaks down starch

  • Lipase breaks down fats

  • Proteases and pepsin break down proteins

  • Krebs cycle is the complete oxidation of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats

  • Calorie represents the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree celsius

  • COME BACK TO THIS CHAPTER

Chapter 4 = Carbohydrates

  • Enriched food is the addition of B vitamins thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin and other mineral iron to the product

  • When a nutrient that has never been part of a grain is added, the grain is said to be fortified

Chapter 5 = Lipids or Fats

Chapter 6 = Proteins

Chapter 7 = Vitamins

Chapter 8 = Minerals

Chapter 9 = Water

Section 2: Maintenance of Heart Through Good Nutrition

Chapter 10 = Food-Related Illnesses and Allergies

Chapter 11 = Diet during Pregnancy and Lactation

Chapter 12 = Diet during Infancy

Chapter 13 = Diet during Childhood and Adolescence

Chapter 14 = Diet during Young and Middle Adulthood

Chapter 15 = Diet during Late Adulthood

Section 3: Medical Nutrition Therapy

Chapter 16 = Diet and Weight Control

Chapter 17 = Diet and Diabetes Mellitus

Chapter 18 = Diet and Cardiovascular Disease

Chapter 19 = Diet and Renal Disease

Chapter 20 = Diet and Gastrointestinal Problems

Chapter 21 = Diet and Cancer

Chapter 22 = Diet and Clients with Special Needs

Chapter 23 = Nutritional Care of Clients