History of Progress, Neocolonialism, and Revolution in Latin America

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Progress and Liberal Reform (1850s)

• Historical Context: In the $1820s$, there was a rise in liberalism, followed by a surge of conservatism from the $1830s$ through the $1850s$.

• Liberal-Conservative Tensions: By roughly $1850$, there were significant battles and tensions between liberals and conservatives throughout almost every region in Latin America.

• Defining Progress: During the mid-$1800s$, the concept of "progress" was a defining theme of liberal reform.

US Intervention: The Mexican-American War ($1846$-$1848$)

• Context of Santa Ana: General Santa Ana ruled Mexico as a dictator intermittently between the $1830s$ and $1850s$.

• Texas Independence: In the $1830s$, US colonists in Texas fought Mexican forces under Santa Ana. Santa Ana promised to convince the Mexican Congress to recognize the Republic of Texas, but many Mexicans did not acknowledge this agreement.

• War Details: The United States intervened in Mexico between $1846$ and $1848$. This conflict is known as the Mexican-American War.

• US Motivations: The primary driver was territorial expansion, specifically the desire to acquire California and Texas.

• Conclusion of Conflict: The war ended with Mexico recognizing the secession of several territories, including Texas, to the United States and Mexican states receiving damages.

The Industrial Revolution and Technological Advancement

• Global Context: Between $1850$ and $1875$, the Industrial Revolution was occurring throughout Europe and the United States.

• Technology in Latin America: Technological innovations became more widespread in Latin America during this time, including:

  • Railroads: Expansion of transport networks.

  • Telegraph: A precursor to the telephone, facilitating communication over long distances.

• Impact on Women: In the long run, "progress" benefited women by expanding education and life opportunities. However, at the time, women pursuing these opportunities were often viewed as strange or abnormal.

• Literary Example: Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda, originally from Cuba, wrote a novel in the $1840s$ that served as an argument for the abolition of slavery.

La Reforma in Mexico ($1854$-$1876$)

• The Reform Period: Known as "La Reforma," this was a period of liberal political and social reform in Mexico.

• The Lerdo Law: Liberals advocated for the "Lardo law" (spelled Lerdo Law), which abolished communal land holdings.

• Constitution of $1857$: Ratified in $1857$, this document guaranteed:

  • Individual rights.

  • Universal male suffrage (the right to vote).

  • Freedom of speech and freedom of the press.

  • The abolition of slavery.

  • The removal of Catholicism as the official state religion.

  • The establishment of secular (non-religious) public education.

• War of the Reform ($1857$-$1861$): A civil war broke out between liberals, led by Benito Juarez, and conservatives.

The French Intervention and Maximilian I

• Post-War Debt: After the liberals won the civil war, President Benito Juarez stopped repaying foreign debts to rebuild the economy.

• Conservative Strategy: Mexican conservatives asked Napoleon III of France for assistance during the civil war.

• Installation of an Emperor: Napoleon III provided the conservatives with an emperor named Maximilian. France invaded Mexico in $1862$, and in $1864$, they installed Maximilian as the Emperor of Mexico.

• Mexican Nationalism: The French invasion fueled a national identity and a resistance movement led by Benito Juarez.

• End of the Empire: Napoleon III eventually withdrew his forces; Maximilian was captured and executed. Benito Juarez was reinstated as president, and conservatives never regained power in Mexico.

Liberalism and the End of Slavery in Brazil

• Monarchical Structure: During this period, Brazil was a monarchy under Pedro I, followed by his son, Pedro II.

• Pedro II: Unlike his father, Pedro II was a liberal who believed in science and progress. He desired for Brazil to move away from being a slave-owning society.

• Elite Disconnect: The Brazilian elite often embraced liberal theory while continuing conservative practices.

• Abolition: Princess Isabel, daughter of Pedro II, was a committed abolitionist. In the $1880s$, she signed the "Golden Law," which ended four centuries of slavery in Brazil. Brazil was one of the last nations in Latin America to abolish the practice.

• Shift to Republic: Shortly after abolition, the military proclaimed Brazil a republic, and the royal family fled to Europe.

Intellectual Discourse: Civilization vs. Barbarism

• Author: Domingo Faustino Sarmiento.

• Document: Written in $1845$, titled "Civilization versus Barbarism."

• Main Arguments:

  • Sarmiento viewed native Argentinians in the rural countryside as "less than" European Argentinians.

  • He equated civilization with European culture and urban centers.

  • He advocated for increased European immigration to Argentina to serve as a model for progress.

• Implications of Progress: In the $1850s$, progress was viewed by many elites as the eradication of those who did not fit the "civilized" or European ideal. This created a racial ideology where equality was not applied universally.

Neocolonialism and the Export Boom

• Definition of Neocolonialism: A form of indirect control through economic and cultural influence rather than direct military or political rule.

• The Export Boom: The neocolonial period saw the largest sustained growth in Latin America through exports.

  • Guatemala: Coffee boom.

  • Honduras: Banana boom.

• Winners and Losers:

  • Gainers: Large landowners (property values increased) and a small middle class of professionals and merchants.

  • Losers: Peasants and indigenous people were forcibly moved from their lands to make way for railroads and plantations.

• Banana Republics: US banana companies became multinational corporations, operating countries like private companies and creating "company towns" where managers and workers lived.

• Urbanization: Rural populations shifted to cities. Buenos Aires grew from $100,000$ inhabitants in the $1850s$ to $2,000,000$ by the end of the neocolonial period.

The Porfiriato in Mexico ($1876$-$1911$)

• Leader: Porfirio Diaz, a general born to a wealthy family, served as the dictator of Mexico for over $30$ years.

• The Cientificos: Diaz relied on a group of advisors called "Centificos" (Scientists) who followed positivist ideas to help modernize Mexico.

• Rule of Iron: Diaz used a policy of "bread or the bludgeon," rewarding those who supported him and crushing opponents.

The Spanish-American War and US Hegemony

• Cuban Independence: By the late $1800s$, only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish control. Cuba fought three wars for independence:

  1. The Ten Years' War.

  2. The Little War.

  3. The War of $1895$.

• Jose Marti: A poet and Cuban nationalist who created the Cuban Revolutionary Party in $1892$. In his essay "Our America," he called for Latin Americans to embrace a regional identity against foreign control.

• The Monroe Doctrine: Stated that US intervention in the Americas would be seen as an act of aggression. It was effectively enforced only after the US gained significant naval power.

• USS Maine: In February $1898$, the battleship USS Maine exploded in Havana harbor, prompting the US to declare war on Spain.

• Outcome: The US won the war in a few months. Spain relinquished Guam, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Cuba.

• Platt Amendment ($1901$): Although the US withdrew troops from Cuba, it established a protectorate. The amendment allowed the US to intervene in Cuban affairs and granted the US the naval base at Guantanamo Bay.

• Roosevelt Corollary: President Theodore Roosevelt stated that the US could intervene in Latin America to correct "wrongdoing" or instability. This led to a dramatic rise in US military interventions between $1898$ and $1934$.

The Mexican Revolution ($1910$-$1920$)

• Origins: Dissatisfaction with the elitist policies and $30$-year rule of Porfirio Diaz.

• Francisco Madero: An upper-class liberal who ran for president in $1910$. After being imprisoned by Diaz, he published the "Plan des senes Luis Cortosi" (Plan de San Luis Potosí) calling for Diaz's removal.

• Rebellion Leaders:

  • North: Led by Francisco "Pancho" Villa.

  • South: Led by Emiliano Zapata.

• Succession of Leaders:

  • Madero became president in $1911$ but was criticized by Zapata for failing to restore indigenous lands.

  • Victoriano Huerta: Led a coup in $1913$, assassinated Madero, and ruled for one year.

  • Venustiano Carranza: Led the opposition against Huerta and took power in $1914$.

• Constitution of $1917$: An updated liberal document that included social rights:

  • Article 3: Mandatory, free, secular education.

  • Article 27: Land reform and restoration of communal lands.

  • Article 123: Labor rights.

• The Soldaderas: Female soldiers and supporters in the revolution.

  • Valentina Ramirez: Fought disguised as a man; the Valentina hot sauce brand is named after her.

  • Angela Jimenez: Another prominent female figure in the revolution.

Questions & Discussion

• Question (Student): Who wrote the "Civilization versus Barbarism" document?

• Answer (Instructor): Domingo Faustino Sarmiento in $1845$.

• Question (Student): Does the US have its own culture?

• Response (Discussion): The US is a "melting pot" with many cultural influences, including Spanish influence which remains significant in the US and Latin America.

• Question (Student): How much was the toy bluey?

• Answer (Student): It was over $100$.

• Activity: Group Debate: Students were split into three groups (Cuba, Spain, and the US) to argue who "won" the Spanish-American War. Most students concluded the US won due to territory and economic gains, while some argued Spain retained cultural influence.

• Spider Incident: During the lecture, a small spider appeared in the classroom, causing a brief distraction before being handled by a student.