Nationalism and German Unification

Exam Logistics and Reading Material

• Required Reading: Students are expected to read along with the syllabus using the assigned book. Copies (digital and hard) are available at the bookstore.

• Book Questions: The next exam will include questions based on topics found in the assigned readings that have not been explicitly covered in lectures. Students should pay close attention to any topic with its own subheading in the book that the instructor has not mentioned, as these are strong candidates for exam questions.

Introduction to Nationalism and Unification

• Upcoming Topics: The course will now cover nationalism and unification, followed by imperialism, and then move into the 20^{th} century with discussions on the World Wars.

• Historical Context: In the mid-19^{th} century, neither Germany nor Italy existed as unified nation-states.

• Lecture Focus: The lecture will primarily focus on German unification. Italian unification will be a source of at least one exam question, serving as a hint for study.

• Definition of Nationalism: Historically, nationalism is understood as a shared cultural identity (including language and background) among a group of people typically residing within a specific geographical area.

Emergence of German Nationalism

• Early Roots: German nationalist sentiment predates Napoleon's empire, tracing back to the late 18^{th} century.

  • During the early modern period (16^{th}-18^{th} centuries), the German territories consisted of over 300 separate states, varying greatly in size.

  • There had never been a single, unified German state.

• Philosophical Foundations: By the late 18^{th} century, a growing sentiment for a distinct German identity began to emerge, gaining significant momentum in the 19^{th} century.

  • Herder and Fichte: German philosophers who were among the first to articulate these ideas.

  • Herder's Contribution: He was the first to propose that each group of people possesses its own unique spirit, which he termed Volksgeist (meaning 'spirit of the people').

  • The Volksgeist is expressed through a people's culture and history, serving as a means to explore and experience this unique identity.

The Impact of the Napoleonic Era

• Catalyst for Nationalism: The experience of foreign occupation, particularly by French soldiers during the Napoleonic period, was a powerful catalyst for nationalist emotion among the German states.

  • The presence of foreign forces often highlights and intensifies cultural and national distinctions.

  • French soldiers were sometimes perceived as arrogant, and while some French revolutionary ideas were embraced, the overall occupation fueled a desire for national liberation.

• Napoleon's Russian Campaign: After Napoleon's disastrous Russian campaign with $650,000 troops in 1812, he attempted to raise a new army from the German states. However, these states were already in the throes of nationalist sentiment and viewed this as an opportunity for national liberation rather than supporting the French.

Prussian Reforms and Early Nationalist Consciousness

• Stein and Hardenberg: Key figures in the Prussian government during the Napoleonic era.

  • Rather than allowing French revolutionary ideas to be imposed, they initiated their own reforms within Prussia to strengthen the state independently.

  • Their reforms included the creation of a public education system, similar in concept to France's but developed autonomously.

  • These reforms were crucial in the evolution of German national consciousness, fostering a sense of identity distinct from French influence.

The Rivalry: Austria vs. Prussia

• Two Superpowers: From the early modern period, it was clear that German unification, driven by internal politics, would eventually occur.

  • The two dominant German-speaking states were Austria (governed by the traditional Habsburg dynasty) and Prussia.

  • The eventual unification would involve one state dominating and the other being excluded.

• Contrasting Approaches:

  • Habsburgs (Austria): Highly traditional and resistant to change, including any moves towards popular representation.

  • Prussia: More open to reforms and some forms of representation. This pragmatic approach garnered favor among many nationalists and helped secure Prussia's leadership role.

• Zollverein: Prussia spearheaded the creation of the Zollverein, a customs union among German states (excluding Austria).

  • This union eliminated internal tariffs, facilitating trade and boosting economic power among its members.

  • The Zollverein further cemented Prussia's economic leadership and influence over the German territories.

• Geopolitical Landscape: The map of German lands at this time was a complex, fragmented geopolitical mosaic. Prussia (including Brandenburg) emerged as the dominant force, providing leadership, while the Habsburgs controlled territories further south.

Otto von Bismarck: The Architect of Unification

• Background: Born into the Junker class (the Prussian landed aristocracy).

  • Initially led a somewhat dissolute life, earning him the moniker "the mad Bismarck" in his youth.

  • Despite this, he was fiercely devoted to Junker interests and to the ruling Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty.

• Prime Minister: Bismarck eventually became Prime Minister under the Hohenzollern monarchy.

• Realpolitik: He was a practitioner of Realpolitik, a political philosophy that emphasizes doing whatever is necessary to achieve national goals, often involving pragmatic and flexible policies rather than ideological adherence.

• "Blood and Iron" Speech: Bismarck famously declared that the great questions of the day would be decided "not by speeches and majority resolutions—that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849—but by Blut ext{ und } Eisen (blood and iron)."

  • Blood (Blut): Symbolized war and military strength.

  • Iron (Eisen): Represented industrial power and economic might.

  • These two elements formed the core of his strategy for unifying Germany.

• Goal: Bismarck's ultimate objective was to unify Germany under Prussian leadership, explicitly excluding Austria.

The Wars of German Unification

• Danish War (1864): Prussia and Austria allied to defeat Denmark over the disputed territories of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia received Schleswig, and Austria received Holstein.

• Austro-Prussian War (1866): Bismarck deliberately provoked a conflict with Austria over the administration of Holstein.

  • Italian Alliance: Italy agreed to support Prussia (or at least remain neutral) in exchange for gaining Venetia from Austria.

  • Prussian Victory: Prussia achieved a decisive victory (e.g., at the Battle of Königgrätz/Sadowa), effectively excluding Austria from German affairs.

  • North German Confederation: Following the war, Prussia established the North German Confederation, an organization of northern German states under Prussian hegemony, laying the groundwork for future unification.

  • Southern German States: The Catholic southern German states, which were more sympathetic to Austria than Prussia, initially remained outside the Confederation. However, they soon became concerned about potential French territorial ambitions.

• Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871): Bismarck orchestrated this war to draw the remaining southern German states into a unified Germany.

  • Spanish Succession Crisis: A Hohenzollern prince (related to Prussian King William I) was offered the Spanish throne.

  • French Opposition: France, under Napoleon III, vehemently opposed this, fearing encirclement by Hohenzollerns in both Germany and Spain.

  • Ems Dispatch: King William I sent a telegram (the Ems Dispatch) to Bismarck detailing his meeting with the French ambassador regarding the Spanish succession. Bismarck strategically edited the dispatch, removing polite language and making it sound like an insult to the French. He then released this doctored version to the press.

  • French Declaration of War: Feeling humiliated, France declared war on Prussia.

  • German Unification Achieved: The war rallied the southern German states to Prussia's side, uniting them against a common French enemy. Germany achieved a decisive victory.

  • Treaty of Frankfurt: The peace treaty was signed in France, with terms dictated by Germany. France was forced to cede Alsace-Lorraine, two historically German-speaking provinces on its eastern frontier.

  • Proclamation of the German Empire: With the defeat of France and the inclusion of the southern states, the German Empire was proclaimed in 1871, completing the process of unification.

Future Topics

• The significance of Alsace-Lorraine and its implications will be discussed further in subsequent lectures.