Iron Age Lecture Notes: Lydians, Neo-Babylonian Empire, and Persian Empire

The Lydians

• An Asia Minor civilization that was contemporary to the Assyrians and Babylonians.

• Lydian mercenaries assisted the Egyptian king Psamtik I in defeating the Kushites and Assyrians during the $600s$ BC.

• Considered the inventors of coinage due to their significant wealth.

• Their most famous king was Croesus (reigned $ext{561}$ – $ext{546}$ BC).

• The immense wealth of Croesus and the Lydians gave rise to the popular expression, "as rich as Croesus."

The Neo-Babylonian Empire

Decline of Assyria

• Assyria's power and influence declined significantly after $ext{605}$ BC, never to regain its former status.

Nebuchadnezzar II ($ext{605}$ - $ext{562}$ BC)

• A Chaldaean ruler of Babylon.

• He was the most successful king after Babylon regained its independence, which occurred after the decline of Assyria.

The Battle of Carchemish

• A decisive battle fought in $ext{605}$ BC.

• Combatants: Remnants of Assyria and their Egyptian mercenary allies (led by King Necho II) against the Neo-Babylonian coalition (led by Nabopolassar and his son Nebuchadnezzar II).

• Assyrian Retreats Prior to the Battle:

  • After the Assyrian capital, Nineveh, was sacked in $ext{612}$ BC following the Battle of Nineveh, the Assyrians, under General Ashur-uballit II, fled to Harran.

  • When the Babylonians captured Harran in $ext{610}$ BC during the Fall of Harran, the Assyrians were forced to retreat again, this time to Carchemish.

• Egyptian Intervention:

  • Facing the potential collapse of their civilization, Egyptian allies mustered a force to aid the Assyrians.

  • The Egyptian army of Necho II was delayed by the Battle of Megiddo ($ext{609}$ BC).

  • In the Battle of Megiddo, the Kingdom of Judah, led by Josiah, attempted to prevent the Egyptians from passing through their land.

  • The Jewish force was crushed, and Josiah was killed; his body was buried in Jerusalem according to ancient Jewish customs.

  • After their victory, the Egyptians joined the Assyrians and unsuccessfully tried to reclaim the Harran region from Babylonia.

  • They were forced to retreat back to Carchemish, where the Babylonians met them with their full force.

• Outcome:

  • Led by Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonians decisively crushed the combined forces of Egypt and Assyria.

  • This battle marked a decisive turning point in Mesopotamian history.

• Records of the Battle:

  • The major record is the Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle, currently housed in the British Museum.

  • According to the Babylonian account, Nebuchadnezzar and his armies crossed the Euphrates to defeat the Assyrians at Carchemish.

  • The Egyptian army withdrew first, and the Assyrians were utterly defeated.

  • The retreating Egyptians were cut off by the Babylonians in the Hamath district and "slaughtered them down to the last man."

  • The Battle of Carchemish is also mentioned in the Bible, specifically in the Book of Jeremiah and $ext{2}$ Chronicles.

Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar II

• Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilt Babylon into an elaborate city.

• Notable constructions included: hanging gardens (though their existence is sometimes debated), the Gate of Ishtar, and a new ziggurat (later known as the Tower of Babel).

• Much of Babylon's reputation as a great city stems from the improvements made by Nebuchadnezzar II.

Policies and The Babylonian Captivity

• Nebuchadnezzar II continued some policies of the old Assyrian rulers, such as transplanting conquered peoples.

• The most prominent example is the "Babylonian captivity."

• After conquering Jerusalem and ending Judah's independence in $ext{586}$ BC, he deported many residents to Babylon and other locations, dispersing them from their homeland.

• This event later became an essential element of Jewish identity.

End of the Chaldean Empire

• Nebuchadnezzar was the last of the great Mesopotamian kings.

• The Chaldean empire disintegrated after his death.

• Political intrigue created by high priests and reliance on astrological advice undermined the kingdom.

• In $ext{539}$ BC, Cyrus and the Persians arrived, ending the Chaldean period.

The Persian Empire

Rise of the Persians

• For years, the Persians were vassals of the Medians.

• With the decline of Elam and Assyria, the Persians gained prominence.

• The Persian king Cyrus II successfully rebelled against the Medians, leading to the creation of the Persian Empire.

Cyrus II (the Great) ($ext{559}$ - $ext{530}$ BC)

• Often referred to as "Cyrus the Great."

• He defeated Croesus and the Lydians, and conquered the Babylonians in $ext{539}$ BC.

• Oracle of Croesus: Croesus of Lydia famously consulted an oracle before fighting Cyrus II's Persians. The oracle vaguely stated that if he attacked, Croesus would destroy a great empire. The prophecy came true, but it was Croesus's own empire that fell to the Persians.

• Conquest of Babylon:

  • Nabonidus was the last king of the Babylonian Empire (c. $ext{556}$ - $ext{539}$ BC), defeated by Cyrus II.

  • Nabonidus worshipped the Babylonian moon god Sin, which angered the priests of Babylon who preferred Marduk (the patron and supreme god in their view).

  • This internal dispute among the Babylonians made Cyrus II's conquest of Babylon easier.

  • Cyrus II declared that his kingship was ordained by the Babylonian god Marduk, despite the Persians having a separate religion.

• Policies Towards Conquered Peoples:

  • Notably allowed the captives of Judah to return from Babylonian exile.

  • He rebuilt temples in Jerusalem that had been destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar.

  • Some Jewish citizens did not return, marking the beginning of the long Jewish diaspora (movement of people of similar ethnic/national heritage away from their homeland).

  • The Persians were successful because they did not displace the aristocracy of invaded territories.

  • Unlike the Assyrians, the Persians had a policy of integration and collaboration with conquered peoples.

  • Persians were generally tolerant of diverse cultures and religions.

• Death: Cyrus the Great was ultimately killed in battle against an obscure nomad group.

• Considered the "Founder of the Persian Empire."

Cambyses II ($ext{530}$ - $ext{522}$ BC)

• The son of Cyrus II.

• Continued his father's policies of warfare, conquering Egypt under Psamtik III.

• Expanded the Persian Empire from India all the way to the Mediterranean.

• Within a few decades, the Persians became the largest and most successful empire in the Near East.

Darius I ($ext{521}$ - $ext{486}$ BC)

• A cousin of Cyrus II and Cambyses.

• He overcame nine ($ext{9}$) other claimants to the Persian throne and suppressed several rebellions.

• Claimed that Ahuramazda (the major god of Zoroastrianism) ordained his kingship.

• Considered the " ext{2}$}nd" founder of the Persian Empire (after Cyrus II).

• Built much of the empire's infrastructure.

Persian Administrative System: Satrapies

• The empire was divided into roughly $ext{20}$ provinces, known as satrapies.

• The rulers of these provinces were called "Satraps."

• Satraps had three ($ext{3}$) main responsibilities:

  1. Collect taxes.

  2. Recruit new soldiers.

  3. Administer justice.

Oversight: "Eyes and Ears of the King"

• Military officials and special inspectors, known as the "eyes and ears of the king," traveled throughout the realm to visit and monitor the satraps.

Taxation and Accomplishments of Darius I

• Darius I taxed his subjects, not always in money, but also in gold, darics, food, and animals.

• Accomplishments:

  • Introduced coinage to Persia.

  • Created an early version of a postal system, allowing him to stay informed about happenings across his empire.

  • Constructed the "Royal Road" that connected the satrapies within Persia.

    • The Royal Road had a post every $ext{14}$ miles where couriers could obtain fresh horses.

    • This system allowed them to complete the $ext{1600}$-mile route in just one week.

Persian Religion: Zoroastrianism

Nature of the Religion

• The primary religion of the Persian Empire.

• It is not a monotheistic religion but is more accurately described as dualism.

• Centers on the concept of maintaining a balance between good and evil.

• Also sometimes called Mazdaism.

Zoroaster

• The founder of Zoroastrianism (c. $ext{500}$ BC).

• Not considered a deity figure, but rather a prophet.

Key Deities

• Ahuramazda:

  • The chief god of Zoroastrianism (one of the two major deities).

  • God of light, good, and arta.

  • Counterbalanced by the god Ahriman.

• Arta:

  • A concept close to the Egyptian idea of maat.

  • Stood for truth, justice, and order.

  • An essential aspect of Zoroastrianism, obligating rulers to govern according to Arta.

• Ahriman:

  • The secondary god of Zoroastrianism (one of the two major deities).

  • God of darkness, chaos, and evil.

  • Counterbalanced by the god Ahuramazda.

Lesser Deities

• Several lesser Zoroastrian deities include:

  • Anahita: A mother goddess.

  • Mithra: A solar deity who assists Ahuramazda.