Practice for LIt
appositive: a noun or noun phrase placed next to another noun to identify or describe it
Example: Hermeto Pascoal, the celebrated Brazilian jazz musician, played several instruments.
clause: a group of words that contains both a subject and a verb
Example: since I got my driver's license
comma splice: an error in which two independent clauses are joined by only a comma
Example: I saw the cookie, I ate the cookie.
complex sentence: a sentence made up of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause
Example: She supposed she could walk all the way to Cleveland, although that was less appealing than taking the bus.
compound-complex sentence: a sentence made up of at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause
Example: Virginia studied for hours, although she really didn't want to, and she would have preferred to watch a movie.
compound sentence: a sentence made up of two or more independent clauses joined by a comma plus a coordinating conjunction, correlative conjunctions, or a semicolon
Example: There were no more cookies in the jar, so I baked a fresh batch.
coordinating conjunction: a word like and or but that joins two words, phrases, or independent clauses of equal importance
Example: The night is clear, and the moon is full.
correlative conjunctions: pairs of conjunctions that work together to connect words, phrases, or clauses
Examples: either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/but also
dangling modifier: a modifier whose subject is missing or unclear
Example: Finishing breakfast, it was time to wash the dishes.
dependent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone as a complete sentence because it does not express a complete thought
Example: while you may have escaped this time
FANBOYS: an acronym to help you remember the seven coordinating conjunctions for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so
fragment: an incomplete sentence that is missing a subject or a verb or that does not express a complete thought
Examples: Breakfast for dinner. Thinking of you. Though it's not impossible.
independent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb, expresses a complete thought, and can stand alone as a sentence
Examples: The mug broke. Isabel says she doesn't know who broke it.
misplaced modifier: a modifier that is placed too far from the word it describes, causing confusion about what is being modified
Example: Flashing with lightning and roaring with thunder, the little rabbit sheltered from the terrible storm.
modifier: a word, phrase, or clause that describes or gives more information about another word in a sentence
Examples: the splendid orchard, the glum man in the gray suit
nonrestrictive element: a word, phrase, or clause that adds extra information about a noun but is not essential to identify it
Example: My aunt Phyllis, who lives on Staten Island, loves this recipe.
phrase: a group of words that is missing a subject, a verb, or both
Examples: over the moon, a tremendous stroke of luck, won a sweepstakes
restrictive element: a word, phrase, or clause that is essential to identifying the noun it describes
Example: My aunt who lives on Staten Island doesn't get along with my aunt who lives in the Bronx.
run-on: an error in which two or more independent clauses are joined without proper punctuation or a conjunction
Example: I haven't seen him since Tuesday I wonder where he is.
sentence: a group of words that has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought
Example: I had the strangest dream last night!
sentence fragment: see fragment
simple sentence: a sentence made up of one independent clause with a subject and a verb
Example: Three elephants made their way to the watering hole.
subordinating conjunction: a conjunction that introduces a dependent clause and connects it to an independent clause, showing a relationship such as time, cause, or condition
Examples: because, although, when, unless, while, since, if
What is a phrase?
A phrase is a group of words that works together as a part of speech. Phrases can act as nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, but they generally can't stand on their own as complete sentences. Phrases are different from clauses, which always include both a subject and a verb.
The “head” of a phrase is the word that the phrase is built around. You can identify the head word because it's the part of speech that the phrase functions as, and all the other words in the phrase modify it. The head of a noun phrase is a noun, the head of a verb phrase is a verb, and so on. Note that the head of a phrase is not necessarily the first word in the phrase.
Example (with head word underlined):
a new shirt with purple polka dots
Noun phrases
A noun phrase includes a noun and all the words that modify or describe it. A noun phrase can function as the subject of a sentence, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.
Noun phrase as the subject of a sentence:
The small duckling with gray feathers sadly paddled away.
The head of the noun phrase is duckling. The phrase also includes an article (the), an adjective (small), and a prepositional phrase (“with gray feathers”). These add more information about the duckling.
Noun phrase as the object of a verb:
At the edge of the lake, the duckling stared at its own wobbly reflection.
Noun phrase as the object of a preposition:
The duckling swam across the calm blue-green lake.
Verb phrases
A verb phrase is a group of words built around a main verb. It may also include helping verbs (also called auxiliary verbs), objects, adverbs, or other words that complete the meaning of the verb.
Example:
Dr. Wickedness had constructed a magnificent crocodile pit.
The main verb and head of the phrase is constructed. The verb phrase also includes the auxiliary verb had and the verb's object, which is the noun phrase: “a magnificent crocodile pit.”
Don't confuse verb phrases with phrasal verbs, which are verbs like “turn down” or “act out” that are always paired with particles.
Phrases aren’t clauses. . . but can phrases ever contain clauses?
Phrases can indeed contain clauses!
Example of a noun phrase that includes a clause:
The girl who won the chess tournament lives near me.
“Who won the chess tournament” is a relative clause: it has a subject (who) and a verb (won). However, the phrase “The girl who won the chess tournament” isn't an independent clause. It can't stand on its own as a sentence; instead, the entire phrase functions as a noun and is the subject of the main verb lives
Example of a verb phrase with a clause in it:
I wonder whether he remembers me.
The head of this verb phrase is wonder, but the
of wonder is the clause “whether he remembers me,” which has a subject (he) and a verb (remembers). This clause can't stand on its own as a sentence. The entire verb phrase, including the clause, is the predicate of the sentence.
Remember!
A phrase is a group of words that work together as a part of speech. Phrases can act as nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, but they can’t typically stand alone as complete sentences.
A noun phrase includes a noun and all the words that modify or describe it. A verb phrase includes a main verb and any helping verbs, as well as other words that complete the meaning of the verb.
Adjectival phrases
An adjectival phrase (sometimes called an adjective phrase) is a group of words whose head is an adjective. An adjectival phrase describes or modifies a noun, just like a single adjective would. The main adjective in the phrase is often accompanied by words that intensify or qualify it, such as very, too, so, or enough.
Example:
The ghost pepper sauce was too spicy for me.
Even though this adjectival phrase starts with the adverb too, the head of the phrase is spicy. The phrase functions as an adjective in the sentence, so the head must be an adjective. The adverb too modifies spicy, and the prepositional phrase “for me” acts as an adverbial phrase that also modifies spicy.
Adjectival phrases can appear before or after the noun they modify. When they follow the noun, they are often nonrestrictive elements and are usually set off with commas.
Example:
Vanessa pulled a hot sauce, startlingly yellow, from her fridge.
Adverbial phrases
An adverbial phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb. Adverbial phrases modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, answering questions like when?, where?, how?, or to what degree? Often, prepositional phrases can act as adverbial phrases.
Example:
The hotel's desk clerk smiled at Reina, a secret agent on vacation, a little too knowingly.
The main adverb in the adverbial phrase is knowingly. The phrase modifies the verb smiled and answers the question, “How did the desk clerk smile?”
Phrases aren’t clauses…but can phrases ever contain clauses?
Phrases can indeed contain clauses!
Example of an adjectival phrase with a clause in it:
I'm happy that you came to my party!
The head of the adjectival phrase is happy, but the clause “that you came to my party” completes its meaning. “That you came to my party” is a clause and can't stand on its own as a sentence. The entire phrase, including the clause, functions as an adjective that describes the subject of the sentence, I.
Example of an adverbial phrase with a clause in it:
Jerry played his trombone so loudly that all the snow fell off his roof.
The head of the adverbial phrase is loudly, but the clause “that all the snow fell off his roof” completes its meaning. “That all the snow fell off his roof” has a subject and a verb, but it can't stand on its own as a sentence. The entire phrase, including the clause, functions as an adverb that modifies the verb played.
Remember!
A phrase is a group of words that work together as a part of speech. Phrases can act as nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, but they can’t typically stand alone as complete sentences.
An adjectival phrase functions as an adjective and modifies a noun. An adverbial phrase functions as an adverb and modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb.