Sociology of Religion: Emile Durkheim and the Sacred-Profane Binary
Midterm Examination Logistics and Preparation
Required Materials: * Students need to pick up at least two bluebooks from the bookstore. One will be used for the midterm, and the second should be kept for the final exam. * A pen or pencil is required for the writing portion.
Exam Format: * The exam consists of multiple-choice questions. * Students must answer short essay questions. * The instructor provides a choice of total essay prompts, allowing students to skip topics they may be less familiar with. * There is no bonus credit for answering more than essays. If a student answers more, only the first will be graded.
Content and Scope: * Questions cover all readings and videos assigned to date, including the materials on Ibn Rushd and Carlos Castaneda. * The exam focuses on reproduction of information rather than creative or comparative thinking. Students should be able to clearly explain arguments and concepts provided in the source material. * Exclusions: Material covered on the previous Friday, specifically "Judaism in Minutes" and "What is Ritual," will not be on the midterm; these are reserved for the final exam. * Inclusions: The film regarding the early Jesus movement is fair game for the midterm.
Essay Requirements and Grading: * Each essay should be approximately one paragraph in length, ideally around sentences. * Students should explain even the "obvious" parts of a question to demonstrate a full understanding of key concepts. * Partial credit is awarded; students are encouraged to attempt five questions even if they must guess.
Timing: * The exam takes place at PM during the regular class period. * Students have hour and minutes (the full class duration) to complete the exam. Most students are expected to finish in under hour.
Study Strategies: * Review the syllabus and talk through each text to identify the most important points (e.g., focusing on the central themes of the Dhammapada or Ibn Rushd). * Fill in any gaps by watching missed videos or completing unfinished readings.
Emile Durkheim: The Sociology of Religion
Biographical Context: Emile Durkheim lived from to . He is a classic French sociologist and is frequently credited as the founder of the discipline.
Positivism: Durkheim’s work was heavily influenced by positivism, the belief that society can be studied through scientific facts and provable laws. He argued that just as there are laws of physics, there are scientific laws governing human behavior and social institutions.
The General Theory of Religion: Durkheim sought to develop a structure common to all religions regardless of their historical variety. This is known as a functionalist theory of religion. * The goal is to identify the underlying function of religion rather than just its specific beliefs. * According to Durkheim, the primary function of religion is to produce social cohesion and social belonging.
Social Cohesion and Internalization: Durkheim was interested in how individuals come to identify with a group and internalize its norms and rules. * Example: Education: A school is not just a place to learn subjects; it is a space for socialization where students learn the norms of behavior, hierarchies of authority, and organization of time. * Societies hold together because members voluntarily follow rules, not just out of fear of punishment.
Anomie and Modernity: Durkheim argued that modern society is characterized by institutional differentiation, where society breaks into complex bureaucratic forms (work, leisure, home, etc.). * This can lead to anomie (similar to anonymity), a sense of disconnection or loneliness resulting from a lack of social bonds. * Durkheim’s study on suicide noted that suicide rates were lower in Catholic countries compared to Protestant ones, theorizing that the stronger collective rituals and social cohesion in Catholicism provided a better support network.
Methodological Critique: Durkheim’s work, particularly in The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, relied on ethnographies of Aboriginal peoples in Australia, whom he viewed as "primitive" or "first peoples." Modern anthropologists criticize this for using colonial assumptions and failing to recognize that all societies have a history.
The Sacred and the Profane
The Sacred: Derived from Latin roots meaning "to set apart." The sacred refers to things that a group has decided to treat as special, different, or forbidden. * Arbitrariness: Anything can be sacred: a rock, a tree, a pebble, a piece of wood, or a house. It is not the inherent quality of the object but the social decision to treat it as such that makes it sacred.
The Profane: That which is ordinary or common.
The Strict Binary: Durkheim posits that the sacred and the profane are a strict binary, not a continuum. Something is either sacred or sacred. * There is a visceral repugnance to mingling the two. This is because the notion of the sacred is always and everywhere separate from the notion of the profane in the human mind.
The Role of Ritual: Rituals (or rites) are the scripts or rules for handling sacred things. Ritual work often involves taking ordinary activities (sitting, standing, eating) and treating them as special. * Example: Holy Water: Chemically, holy water is , exactly like ordinary water. However, through the ritual of consecration, it is set apart and treated as sacred. Using it for a profane purpose (like thirst) would be seen as offensive by the community. * Example: The Eucharist: An ordinary wafer and wine are treated as the body and blood of Christ after consecration. This changes their social status from profane to sacred.
Social Danger: A person who ignores or violates taboos and sacred boundaries is seen as sociologically dangerous because they demonstrate a lack of commitment to social norms and the group.
Magic versus Religion
Difference in Social Structure: Durkheim distinguishes religion from magic based on the absence of a "moral community." * Religion: Involves a Church (a generic term for any singular moral community/institution) where members have mutual relations and shared beliefs. * Magic: A magician has a clientele, not a church. His clients may have no mutual relations with one another. Magic is often individualistic and concerned with technical outcomes (e.g., placing a hex) rather than moral cohesion.
Verbatim Definition of Religion: Durkheim defines religion as: "A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden—beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them."
Case Study: The Commercialization of the Sacred (Carrie Mitchell)
Overview: Mitchell examines the tension between sacred space and the practical realities of modern life (time, space, and money) through two Brooklyn cemeteries: Greenwood and Evergreen.
Historical Context: The "Rural Cemetery Movement" began in the s because Manhattan churchyards were overflowing. Brooklyn was then farmland, providing seemingly infinite space for the "City of the Dead."
Greenwood Cemetery (The Integrationist Strategy): * Greenwood has leaned into its identity as a park and historical site. * They host wine tastings, birdwatching, and concerts to generate revenue and keep the space relevant. * They use the slogan "Come Alive at Greenwood" to push back against death being a taboo subject. * They encourage photography and social media presence to publicize the site. * This represents a blending of the sacred and the profane, treating the cemetery as an ordinary leisure space to ensure its financial survival as a nonprofit.
Evergreen Cemetery (The Traditionalist Strategy): * Evergreen maintains a strict boundary between the sacred and the profane. * They prohibit photography because "the grounds are sacredly devoted to the burial of the dead." * They avoid large, loud public events to prevent disturbing the sanctity of the space. * This strategy prioritizes the "set apart" quality of the sacred, viewing tools of exchange like money and photography as profaning elements that make a unique place fungible and common.
The Problem of Space: Since cemeteries in this tradition do not have "expiration dates" on graves, space eventually runs out. Mitchell notes that while Greenwood commercializes, Evergreen doubles down on its sacred identity, even though their long-term survival strategy remains unclear.
Ossuaries: In contrast to permanent burial, ossuaries (common in Europe) involve burying a body until it decays, then placing the bones in a communal pile to reuse the grave space—a more practical approach to limited geography.