Sociology of Education Week 3
School Choice
refers to the options available to parents and students when selecting an educational institution
In the United States, it includes:
Public schools
Private schools
Charter schools
Magnet schools
Homeschooling
Voucher programs
The concept empowers families to choose the best learning environment for their children based on academic, social, cultural, and personal needs.
School Choice Advantages:
Tailored Education:
School choice enables families to choose schools that align with their child’s learning style, interests, or special needs, for example, gifted programs, special education programs, or programs with alternative teaching philosophies.
Increased Competition:
Encourages schools to improve their academic performance, curriculum, offerings, and student support to attract families, this can lead to innovation and a wide variety of education models.
Promotes equity and access (?)
Low-income families and those in underserved areas have more options beyond their public schools their neighbourhood public school voucher programs and charter schools can provide access to higher quality education, foresters greater engagement and satisfaction with others.
Parental empowerment
Offers flexibility and more control over their children’s education
School Choice Challenges and Criticisms:
Raises significant concerns about equity, resource allocation, and the overall impact on public education systems.
School choice initiatives exacerbate academic inequity by creating elite opportunities for certain segments of the population.
“Charter schools erode public education, and we need to be critical about applying a consumer lens to schooling through the concept of choice and commercial branding because this stacks educational opportunities for some while preventing access for others”
Data from stat can for the 2019-2020 school year shows the percentage of students who attend public schools, alternative schools, private schools, and homeschooling:
The overwhelming majority of students are choosing public schools regardless of what province or territory they live in
for example, 93% of students attend public schools in Ontario
7% participate in private or independent
0.3% do homeschooling
School “Choice” in the Public System:
Alternative schools
Part of the education system differs in philosophy, curriculum, and teaching methods when compared to mainstream schools.
They focus on:
Smaller schools and class sizes
which allows personalized instruction and relationships between teachers and students
Non-traditional learning models
I.e. experiential learning, project-based approaches, or self-directed learning
Flexible curriculum
Customized to fit students’ interests, strengths, and learning styles, often including non-standard subjects
Community involvement
Emphasize parental and student participation in decision-making.
Benefits:
Students have more input into their learning process, fostering independence and creativity, strong relationships, and closer-knit communities.
These may provide inclusive environments that cater to students with diverse learning needs, including those who struggle in traditional settings.
TDSB (Toronto District School Board)
It is one of the largest school boards in Canada, serving over 240,00 students within 550 schools.
Alternative schools were established in the TDSB in the 1970s to address various educational needs that were unmet by traditional schools.
19 elementary alternative schools
Focus on inquiry-based learning or environmental education.
21 secondary alternative schools
include thematic schools for arts, social justice, academic, or hands-on learning
Africentric Alternative School (TDSB)
Opened in 2009 as a response to the educational needs of black students within the TDSB
This school is one of 19 alternative public schools run by the TDSB and operates in the wind of the Shephard public school, so it is a program that runs within a school.
It was developed to:
address systemic barriers
improve the academic outcomes of black students
foster a stronger connection to their African heritage
It centers African and diasporic perspectives, histories and cultures, enhancing black students’ sense of identity and belonging.
The Afrocentric perspectives are woven into the entire curriculum, including subjects like math, science, history, and language arts in subjects like history and social studies.
There is a focus on:
African civilizations,
the contribution of the African diaspora
Black Canadian history
While the school emphasizes academic achievement, it also focuses on the following:
The emotional, spiritual, and social development of students
While the school was designed with a focus on black students, it is open to all students open to African education.
It also has smaller class sizes.
Barriers:
SOME believed it would lead to segregation for some reason.
There have been ongoing efforts to expand this school model. However, enrollment appears to be declining
and also has been experiencing funding issues.
Criticisms of alternative schools:
These schools can create a two-tiered system where resources and opportunities are unevenly distributed:
“ Market Choices” or Structured Pathways?
Authors look at who can access and ultimately benefit from these specialty arts programs in schools.
Schools play a huge role in sorting students into particular career trajectories and shaping individual futures.
Alternative schools ultimately benefit affluent families and students with access to high levels of social and cultural capital.
Authors argue that these schools are key mechanisms for inequalities to be produced.
Gatztambide-Fernandez & Parekh (2017) Study:
Looks at the racial identification of those attending specialty arts programs in the TDSB
Students are disproportionately white
In addition to being wealthier
much more likely to have had parents that went to university compared to elementary schools
Suggests that students are more likely to arrive in these programs not only if they have access to the necessary arts training for success in the selection process but also if they come from the right type of schools
The author's analysis shows students come from schools that are also more economically privileged, less racially diverse, and more likely to have parents with a university education than most elementary schools across Toronto district school board.
Produced the same patterns of academic equality as streaming
TDSB MAP
Alternative schools are not available in all neighbourhoods, and this limits the accessibility to them for a lot of populations.
Map schools green for elementary and pink for secondary
Shows that these schools are not evenly distributed throughout Toronto, a majority of them are in the downtown core
Suburbs like Scarboro of Toronto are usually associated with higher crime rates and poverty
There are four secondary alternative schools in Scarborough:
Southeast Secondary Alternative School:
Serves students 16-20 and offers applied college and open-level courses
Does not offer academic or university-level courses
Scarborough Park View:
Re-engaging at-risk youth between the ages of 16-20 offers applied-level courses
Love Scarborough Campaign:
Created in 2022 to highlight the fact that Scarborough, which accounts for 25% of the Toronto population, was receiving less than 1% of the hospital donations of that region
The campaign features real people from Scarboro and generates conversation on the inequalities within the healthcare system.
John Tori even named January 13th the Love Scarboro Day,
Scarborough has a history of being underfunded and lacking resources despite accounting for 25% of the Toronto population and being the most diverse area in the GTA.
The Idea of Limited Access TDSB lottery
The idea of limited access admission is often competitive, and schools may not have the space for all interested students.
About two years ago, the TDSB wanted to do something about the fact that the students attending alternative schools were pretty homogenous in terms of their demographic characteristics, and they wanted the students of these schools to reflect the overall student population.
Chair said that all students have to access these programs and introduced TWO very important changes:
1. the assessment of ability,
so auditions, formal portfolios, entrance exams, and report card marks will no longer be used. However, students are required to demonstrate an interest or passion in their chosen field of study
2. Engaging in a lottery when applications to the program exceeded the available number of spots, and generally speaking, they always do.
What they did was first prioritize spots for Indigenous students and students who already have siblings in the school, and then for 25% of space available, a computer system separates students from underrepresented groups, including black Middle Eastern and Latin X students.
This system created a lot of controversy as many parents argued it eliminated merit.
Criticisms of Alternative Schools REVIEW:
1. Alternative schools can create a two-tiered system where resources and opportunities are unevenly distributed
2. alternative schools are not available in all neighbourhoods, which can limit accessibility for some students
4. Admission is often competitive, and schools may not have space for all interested students.
5. Many alternative schools require significant parental involvement, which can exclude families with fewer resources or time
Separate School Boards
Ontario has four types of publicly funded school systems.
1. English public
(31 School boards)
2. French Public
(4 School Boards)
3. English Catholic
(separate) (29 school boards=examples include Toronto Catholic District School Board (TCDSB), (OCSB)
4. French Catholic
(Separate) (8 School boards = examples include Conseil Scolaire Catholique MonAvenir and Conseil Scolaire Catholique Providence)
Catholic Schools
They are faith-based and generally represent schools that are associated with the catholic faith, although a handful of protestant school boards do exist.
They were established to provide publicly funded Catholic education (section 3 of the BNA Act)
Quebec
eliminated its catholic and protestant school boards in 1997, and New Land held a referendum that same year that was in favour of halting the funding of all denominational schools.
Manitoba
made the change back in 1890, and because Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, PEI, and BC didn’t have separate catholic school systems when they entered the confederation, the constitutional protections for catholic schooling didn’t apply to them.
These school boards operate parallel to public school boards, but they’re governed by catholic trustees.
Catholic trustees
are elected by catholic taxpayers during municipal elections.
While catholic school boards have autonomy, the curriculum and major policy decisions are overseen by the Ontario Ministry of Education
which means they follow the same provincial curriculum as public schools, ensuring a standardized learning outcome across subjects like math, science, and literacy.
Catholic schools, however, integrate religious education and catholic teachings into the curriculum.
They focus on and Integrate:
Religion classes are required as a core part of the curriculum
Schools also celebrate religious sacraments and prayer services
Although catholic and non-catholic students may also attend, especially in high schools, however catholic students are prioritized in Ontario.
Criticisms of Catholic School Boards:
Public funding:
Catholic school board is publicly funded, they cover operational expenses, teacher salaries, and also infrastructure
Catholic property owners in Ontario can designate their education taxes to fund catholic schools.
However, this has created a lot of criticism.
Maintaining separate education systems is costly to the provinces that have them.
Federation of Urban Neighbourhoods of Ontario:
Estimated annual savings of up to 1.5 billion dollars if catholic school boards were absorbed into the public school system
Some groups and political parties have proposed merging catholic and public schools into a single system to reduce costs and promote equity.
Critics argue that public funding for a religiously based system creates inequality as other religious groups do not receive similar funding.
As far back as 1999, the UN committee ruled that material funding roman catholic schools while denying full funding to other religious schools constitutes discrimination.
Values unaligned with Canadian society:
In 2023, when the New York Catholic district school board refused to fly the pride flag at their central office, some people called for the defunding of catholic school boards.
In Ontario, though, former conservative education Minister Steven Leche himself said, “Every child should feel affirmed and should feel safe”
He had no comment on the New York school board, though
There have also been instances where Catholic school officials have organized field trips to attend protests on behalf of the church’s teachings against abortion, for example, more than 100 students from Red Deer, St, Joseph, and Notre Dame high schools were bussed to an anti-abortion rally held in front of the Alberta legislature in Edmonton in 2022.
Numerous court challenges, including at the Supreme Court of Canada, have upheld the constitutionality of Catholic School funding
with a growing number of non-catholic and non-christian families in Ontario, there is increasing pressure to reconsider the separate school system, but for now, it is protected under our constitution
French Immersion
As Ontario is a bilingual province, french immersion plays a key role in fostering bilingualism and providing students with enhanced language skills for future opportunities immersion programs
in Canada, are elementary or secondary programs offered in English language schools, in which French is the language of instruction for most of the school day
Many, if not all, subjects are taught in French except English classes
Immersion programs were created so students can acquire French as a second language skill
There has been a rise in yearly enrollments in French immersion programs over the last two decades
An increase of 76.4% in 20 years
French immersion programs have become more popular as students who learn both languages in school may benefit from increased multicultural awareness.
Easier travel throughout Canada and better access to bilingual jobs, as well as potential developmental and social benefits
Challenges to French Immersion
Limited access
Not all regions offer French immersion programs, limiting access, particularly in rural areas.
It is known that the availability of French immersion programs is lower in rural areas, which can be seen in their levels of participation in Canada.
Outside Quebec, participation of school-age children whose mother tongue is not French in French immersion programs was almost twice as high among children living in urban centers than those living outside these areas.
In some areas, demand for French immersion outweighs the availability, leading to very long wait lists.
Shortage of qualified French teachers
in 2023, the provinces began funding 110 additional speaking teachers in education spaces for the academic year
The ministry has also reduced certification timelines by 50% for internationally trained educators
In the TDSB, teacher shortages are making the news as they struggle to fill positions
Short-term fill-ins have occasionally taught French immersion classes, and some parents say a lack of stability is hurting their child’s education
Resources for classes that lack a regular teacher apart from teacher shortages
Limited access to French resources such as textbooks and educational materials, especially in upper-level subjects like science or math
Marginalized groups are also underrepresented in French immersion programs
For example, almost half of the students in French immersion identified as white students
Students with disabilities are underrepresented in French immersion programs
Thus, critics have argued that French immersion programs are an elitist system aiming to serve higher achieving, more affluent students with immersion programs in Toronto
Charter schools
Publicly funded independent schools
Funded by public money but are governed by the board rather than the local school board
The charter board typically consists of parents, teachers, and community members.
Whereas traditional public schools are governed by elected officials known as trustees
Charter schools have a specific educational focus on philosophy.
Benefits to Charter Schools
They have flexibility in hiring curriculum and school operations
This means that charter schools are in charge of all their hires and admissions
They report directly to the government.
The first charter school law was passed in Minnesota in 1991
Charter schools in the US have experienced significant growth since then, with over 7,000 schools that are serving around 3 million students
Charter schools were created in the United States to provide more choices in public education, especially for marginalized communities
So what about Canada?
In Canada, only Alberta has legislated charter schools
the rest of Canada relies on traditional public and private schools
Examples of charter schools in Alberta:
Suzuki Charter School in Edmonton
which delivers music instruction using the Suzuki method
Mother Earths Children Charter School
which focuses on traditional Indigenous teachings
While schools such as these sound a lot like alternative schools, they are distinctly different because they do not report to the local school board, but instead, they report directly to the provincial ministry, so charter schools are not accountable to publicly elected trustees, in the same way, that public schools are
Charter school limitations and critiques
Hidden Costs:
Supplemental fees such as registration and resource fees.
Example: Alberta Classic Academy charges a $265 resource fee for grades 1-8 and a $975 transportation fee annually.
Uniform costs add to the financial burden for parents.
Wealth Disparities:
Charter schools tend to attract students from wealthier socio-economic groups, partly due to the hidden costs.
In Alberta, data shows that charter school attendees come predominantly from affluent backgrounds.
Racial Segregation:
Charter schools often result in racial segregation, as seen in cities like New York City.
In the U.S., black and Hispanic students are overrepresented, while white and Asian students are underrepresented.
Contrast with private schools: 69% of private school students are white, while only 11% are black.
Research links highly segregated schools to lower graduation rates for black students, which correlates with reduced life expectancy.
Mixed Academic Results:
Critics in Ontario claim that charter schools could improve educational outcomes and address declining math scores, but there is no conclusive evidence to support this.
In Alberta and the U.S., findings on charter schools' academic achievements have been mixed.
American data (National Center for Statistics) shows no significant difference in reading, writing, or math scores between charter and public schools.
Achievement Gap:
Research suggests charter schools widen the achievement gap between black and white students.
Gifted programs in charter schools (17% in Alberta) contribute to improved test scores, but at-risk youth programs represent less than 1%, skewing public school rankings.
Selective Admissions:
Charter schools can pick and choose students, rejecting weaker applications to maintain high performance.
There is pressure to achieve high test scores to avoid the risk of closure.
Impact on Special Needs Students:
Charter schools may deny admission to students with disabilities to protect their test scores.
They often bypass parts of the Education Act that require accommodations for students with special education needs.
Governance and Accountability
Autonomy:
Charter schools have greater autonomy in areas such as curriculum design, governance, and staff hiring, which allows for innovation but raises concerns about equity and oversight.
Board of Directors:
Charter schools are governed by boards of directors, often made up of parents and community members. These boards are not democratically elected, raising concerns about public accountability.
Public Funding and Transparency:
Since charter schools are publicly funded, they are expected to use taxpayer money transparently and effectively.
However, concerns have been raised about whether these schools manage public resources efficiently.
Performance Targets:
Charter schools in Alberta are required to meet positive academic outcomes as part of their accountability, but critics argue that oversight by the Ministry of Education is inconsistent.
Private schools
Not publicly funded
Schools owned and operated outside of the public authority in Canada
often do not receive any government funding and instead charge tuition fees
BC, Manitoba, Alberta, and Quebec, however, provide some funding to private schools
if they meet a variety of conditions, such as hitting accredited teachers and teaching the curriculum set by the province of Canada
They are not funded by the government, and they’re not monitored except at the secondary level
They often have smaller class sizes with lower student-to-teacher ratios
they also offer customized curriculums that may not be available in public schools
Strong emphasis on extracurricular activities so that students are well-rounded
They also often set high academic standards
The best-known private school is Upper Canada College, an all-boys school located in Toronto that has been around since 1923
the first year of enrollment for a kindergarten student is 51,050$ as it includes tuition and one-time fees
Disadvantages:
The first is cost and affordability.
Selective admissions and the ability to restrict based on ethnicity, religion and performance
Not the same level of accountability, and there may be inconsistencies in quality among different institutions
Can contribute to social stratification
Can create homogenous environments
High reports of bullying,
for example, St. Mike College sexual assault, Upper Canada College sexual assaults
ROBSON CHAPTER 4 NOTES
Decentralization of Education
Canada has no federal education department; 13 jurisdictions (10 provinces, 3 territories) are responsible for education.
Education responsibilities are outlined in each jurisdiction's Education Act, covering organization, delivery, staff duties, accountability, and program types.
The decentralized system was established in 1867 to protect the diverse ethnic and religious populations in different regions.
Education is structured similarly across the country, though differences arise due to historical, cultural, and political circumstances.
2. Education Spending
In 2006, Canada spent 6.1% of its GDP on education, higher than the OECD average of 5.7%.
40% of this expenditure went to tertiary education, making Canada (along with the U.S.) the largest spender in this sector.
Education is a significant public expenditure, with around $80 billion spent annually across all government levels.
3. Education Structure
Education is categorized into four levels: pre-elementary, elementary, secondary, and post-secondary.
3.1 Pre-Elementary Programs
Pre-elementary (kindergarten) is available in all jurisdictions but varies in length and intensity (half-day vs. full-day).
Kindergarten is typically offered for children aged 4-5, with attendance mandatory only in some provinces (e.g., Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador).
Ontario offers two years of universally available pre-elementary education (junior and senior kindergarten).
3.2 Elementary and Secondary Programs
Public education is free for Canadian citizens and permanent residents.
Mandatory education generally begins at age 6 or 7 and ends at age 16 (with some provinces raising this to 18).
The elementary-secondary system covers 12 years, though some jurisdictions may include “middle school” or “junior high” for grades between elementary and high school.
Quebec has a unique structure, with 12 years of education divided into "cycles" instead of grades:
Elementary: Cycles I, II, III (Grades 1-6)
Secondary: Secondary I–V (Grades 7-11)
Quebec students must attend CEGEP (Collège d’enseignement général et professionnel) before university, either for two-year pre-university or three-year trade programs.
4. Funding and Private Schools
Public education is funded by municipal, provincial, federal, and private sources, with schools receiving a per-pupil amount.
Private schools, partially funded in some jurisdictions (6 total), must meet specific criteria, such as employing provincially certified teachers.
Around 93% of Canadian students attend publicly funded schools.
5. School Choice and the Edmonton Model
School choice refers to the ability of parents to select from different types of schools (public, private, alternative, charter, religious).
Edmonton Model:
Introduced in the 1970s to decentralize school governance.
Schools receive funding based on a weighted per-student formula, factoring in special needs.
Principals manage 90% of school budgets, enhancing local control.
The model promotes freedom from catchment areas, with parents choosing schools freely.
Adopted in other regions, including parts of the U.S.
Overview of School Governance in Canada
Provincial/Territorial Level:
Each province/territory has a ministry or department of education.
Headed by an elected minister, appointed by the party leader.
Ministries define policy, and legislative frameworks, and manage administration and finances.
Local Level:
Governance by school boards, school divisions, school districts, or district education councils.
Tasks vary by jurisdiction but generally include:
Financial administration.
Hiring teachers.
Implementing curriculum.
Making decisions on major expenditures.
Public school boards exist in every province and territory, representing local governance of K-12 education.
2. Local Governance Structure
School Trustees:
Elected during municipal elections.
Often voluntary or with a small stipend.
Represent public involvement in education governance.
School Superintendents:
Chief executive officer of the school board.
Responsible for supervising the school system and implementing board policies.
School Councils:
Made up of parents, teachers, staff, community members, and sometimes students.
Provide recommendations to school principals and boards.
Often involved in social events and fundraising.
Viewed as promoting parental involvement, though some see it as government regulation of such involvement.
3. Power Struggles and Reforms
New Brunswick (1996):
School boards were abolished, and replaced by school districts led by parent-run groups.
Reforms were intended to increase efficiency but met with protests, leading to the reintroduction of school boards in 2000.
Ontario (1997):
Under the Mike Harris government, school boards were reduced from 124 to 72, and trustees from 1,900 to 700.
Trustees' salaries were cut from $40,000 to $5,000.
School boards lost the power to levy property taxes, leading to standardized per-student funding.
Alberta (1995):
Alberta implemented similar reforms, disallowing school boards from collecting property taxes, also shifting to per-student funding.
4. Separate School Boards
Provinces with Separate School Boards:
Exist in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Ontario.
Primarily Catholic, though some Protestant boards still exist.
Historical Context:
Rooted in the British North America Act of 1867, protecting denominational schools for Protestants and Catholics.
Provincial Reforms:
Newfoundland and Quebec eliminated denominational schools in the late 1990s, shifting to French and English school boards.
5. Funding Debates for Faith-Based Schools
Catholic Schools:
Publicly funded in provinces like Ontario, while other faith-based schools are not.
Legal Challenges:
Advocates for non-Catholic religious schools argue this system is discriminatory.
Notable case: Arieh Hollis Waldman challenged the policy at the UN, arguing that funding only Catholic schools violates human rights.
2007 Ontario Elections:
Funding for faith-based schools became a central issue, with the Conservative party proposing to extend funding to these schools. The Liberal party opposed this.
Definition of Alternative Schools
General Definition: Schools that differ in their delivery of education compared to mainstream public schools.
Key Features:
Emphasis on particular languages, cultures (e.g., Aboriginal), subjects (e.g., arts), or teaching philosophies.
Many cater to students at high risk of dropping out, particularly in British Columbia and Quebec.
Alternative high schools often have smaller class sizes and flexible schedules/curricula.
2. Examples Across Provinces
Alberta: Publicly funded alternative programs include fine arts, French immersion, German, hockey, science, and Montessori.
Montessori: Focuses on child-centred, experiential learning. Primarily for young children.
Ontario (Toronto District School Board - TDSB):
Elementary (19 schools) and Secondary (22 schools): Offer Ministry-approved courses with flexible delivery methods (e.g., independent study, cooperative groups).
Schools feature small student populations, individualized learning environments, and often include innovative or experimental programs.
Focus on specific specializations (e.g., Africentric education, social justice, arts).
3. Alternative Schools for Specific Student Populations
High-Risk Youth: Many alternative schools focus on students at risk of dropping out.
OASIS Alternative School (TDSB): Provides programs for LGBTQ+ youth, students interested in skateboarding or street art, and those engaged in experiential learning.
Elementary Schools in TDSB: Promote strong relationships among students, parents, teachers, and communities, with many schools emphasizing social justice and holistic learning.
4. Charter Schools
Definition: Semi-autonomous public schools offering specialized education; currently only exist in Alberta in Canada.
Key Characteristics:
Deliver the provincial curriculum in a unique or enhanced way as outlined in their charters.
Governance by a charter board (comprising parents, teachers, and community members) instead of local school authorities.
Must follow the Alberta Learning curriculum, but have autonomy in governance, funding, and hiring.
Charter schools are reviewed and renewed based on the success of their mandates.
Charter Schools in Alberta (2011):
There were 13 charter schools in Alberta, with the majority located in urban centers like Calgary, which had 83% of the charter school population.
Advantages:
Provide flexibility in curriculum delivery.
Accountability to the province ensures quality education.
Supporters argue competition with regular public schools may improve the public system.
Criticisms:
May encourage a two-tiered education system, with limited access to students from privileged socioeconomic backgrounds.
Charter school governance is not publicly elected, raising concerns about accountability.
French-Language Programs:
Charter Rights: Parents have the right to educate their children in their first language (English or French) as guaranteed by the Canadian Charter.
French-Language Schools: Available across Canada, children qualify if at least one parent is a native French speaker.
French Immersion Programs: Designed for non-French-speaking students; available in most areas except New Brunswick, where intensive French instruction replaces immersion after Grade 5.
Purpose: Promotes bilingualism and linguistic excellence in French.
Criticisms:
Potential "streaming" of students, with immersion programs more likely to attract students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds and academic abilities.
Studies (Willms, 2008; Worswick, 2003) suggest immersion students are more affluent, less likely to have learning disabilities, and tend to perform better on standardized tests.
Aboriginal Education:
Legal Framework:
Constitution Act (1867) and Indian Act (1876) place responsibility for First Nations education on the federal government, primarily for those on reserves.
Off-reserve: Children attend provincial schools.
Federal Responsibility: The federal government funds primary and secondary education on First Nations reserves.
About 20% of First Nations children attend on-reserve schools, while the remainder attend provincial schools.
Challenges arise due to a lack of structure and clarity in federal policy.
Historical Impact of the Indian Act:
Education historically aimed at assimilation.
The Act allowed agreements with provinces and religious organizations to run schools but excluded First Nations from running their own schools.
Policy Changes: The 1972 Indian Control of Indian Education policy granted more control to First Nations bands over on-reserve schools.
Cree School Board (1975) was a notable example of self-governance in education.
Current Issues: Many First Nations schools remain underfunded and isolated, leading to a push for reforms, including partnerships with provincial schools and agreements granting First Nations more control.
International and Offshore Schools:
Canadian International Schools: Located in various countries, these schools follow Canadian provincial curricula and prepare students for Canadian secondary diplomas.
Inspection: Provincial ministries inspect these schools.
Clientele: Typically cater to globally mobile professional families.
Offshore Schools:
British Columbia’s Offshore Schools: B.C. Education Act amendments (2002) allow schools abroad, mostly in China, to offer the B.C. curriculum and hire B.C.-certified teachers.
Purpose: Prepare international students for post-secondary education in Canada and generate funding for public education in British Columbia through tuition fees.
Post-Secondary Education in Canada:
Institution Types:
Public Institutions: Funded primarily by the government (50% or more of operating capital); offer degrees, diplomas, and certificates.
Private Institutions: More limited, with some allowed to grant degrees.
Number of Institutions:
163 universities and 183 public colleges/institutes across Canada.
Quality assurance mechanisms ensure the credibility of credentials.
Funding:
Post-secondary education is supported through municipal, provincial, federal, and private funds.
Tuition: Covers around 20% of total funding.
University Governance Structure
Canadian universities are autonomous, non-profit corporations created under jurisdiction-specific acts or charters (Jones, Shanahan, & Goyan, 2001).
Bicameralism is the common governance model, with two legislative bodies:
Board of Governors (focused on policy and financial issues)
Senate (focuses on academic matters such as programs, admissions, and academic appeals) (Jones, Shanahan, & Goyan, 2001).
2. Composition of Governing Bodies
The Board of Governors generally comprises:
Alumni, external members (two-thirds from outside the university), faculty, students, and senior university administration (e.g., deans, president) (Jones, 2002).
The Senate is typically composed of faculty, students, and university administrators.
University president:
Appointed by the board, attends to day-to-day operations, delegates authority, and connects the university with the provincial government (Jones, 2002).
Participatory process for appointing higher-level administrators (e.g., deans, president), often involving search committees with diverse members, including students (Jones, 2002).
3. Faculty Associations
Faculty associations, both unionized and non-unionized, play significant roles in influencing:
Faculty salaries, workloads, tenure, promotion, and academic freedom.
Membership often includes part-time faculty and librarians (Jones, 2002).
4. Student Associations
Gained influence in the 1960s and 1970s.
Typically mandatory fee-paying membership for students.
Responsibilities include running campus services (pubs, restaurants), student social activities, and monitoring institutional policies (Jones, 2002).
College Governance
1. General Structure
Colleges and institutes vary widely, from those offering degree-granting programs to those specializing in job-related skills training (Orton, 2009).
Colleges are legislated under provincial College Acts and have a primary focus on education rather than research.
Colleges emphasize economic objectives in their mission statements (Orton, 2009).
2. Governance
Governance structures vary but are often characterized by:
Boards of Governors with representation from students, teachers, the public, and business or industry representatives.
Some colleges lack an equivalent to a university senate and, due to their vocational focus, tend to have direct links to business interests.
Academic freedom is generally not guaranteed in colleges, and career colleges often lack it altogether (Orton, 2009).
Public vs Private Post-Secondary Education
1. Public Institutions
Most Canadian universities and a fraction of colleges are publicly funded by municipal, provincial, and federal governments.
2. Private Institutions
Relatively few private universities exist in Canada.
Private institutions often have religious affiliations and rely on tuition and donations for funding.
Private universities became more common after provinces passed legislation allowing them to grant degrees (e.g., New Brunswick, Ontario in 1999-2000).
3. Arguments for and Against Private Universities
For:
Creates more student spaces without government cost.
Introduces competition to increase accountability.
Stimulates economic growth by attracting education entrepreneurs.
Promotes student choice (Cudmore, 2005).
Against:
Two-tiered system favouring the wealthy.
Potential for student debt due to high tuition.
Questionable quality of education, lack of provincial oversight, and reliance on part-time faculty (Cudmore, 2005).
Indigenous Post-Secondary Education
1. First Nations Institutions
The First Nations University of Canada, established in 1976 in partnership with the University of Regina, was the first Aboriginal-controlled institution in Canada.
It offers bi-lingual and bi-cultural education, with a mission focused on preserving First Nations' culture and history.
The institution has grown to an enrollment of about 1,200 students per year, mostly at the undergraduate level.
Vocational Training
Definition: Multi-year programs that provide instruction in a skill/trade leading directly to a job.
Types of Institutions: Secondary schools, public/private post-secondary colleges, and workplace-based apprenticeship programs.
Apprenticeship Pathways
Pre-apprenticeship programs: Offered by colleges or vocational schools.
Employer-sponsored apprenticeships: Direct entry into a trade by securing work.
Structure of Apprenticeship Programs
Training Model: 80% on-the-job training, 20% classroom learning (block release model).
Duration: Typically 3-5 years (6000 to 8000 hours).
Certification: Completion of training followed by an exam to become a certified journeyperson.
Provincial Variation: Different processes in Quebec, where in-school training precedes formal apprenticeship registration.
Apprenticeship Statistics
Workforce Representation: Apprenticeships account for only 1% of the Canadian labor force.
Apprentice Profile: The average age of apprentices is 28, higher than for other post-secondary students.
Industries Covered: Manufacturing, resource, and construction sectors.
Red Seal Trades
Purpose: Provides interprovincial mobility for skilled workers.
Number of Trades: Currently includes 52 trades, such as plumber, baker, ironworker, machinist, cook, roofer, and hairstylist.
Adult Education
Definition: Participation in education by individuals aged 25-64 who have left the initial education cycle (primary, secondary, or early post-secondary).
Drivers: Rapid technological changes and evolving work environments necessitate continued learning.
Types of Adult Education
Formal Adult Education: Structured programs leading to formal credentials (e.g., degrees, certificates, diplomas).
Non-formal Adult Education: Organized learning activities (e.g., workshops, seminars) without formal credentials.
Participation in Adult Education
Statistics: 40% of adults (aged 25-64) participated in formal or non-formal education in 2008.
Lifelong Learning
Continuing Education: Offered by many post-secondary institutions, adult education is necessary across sectors (government, health professions, unions).
Learning Settings: Takes place in various venues such as churches, offices, libraries, and lecture halls.
Chapter Summary Highlights
Pre-elementary programs and school systems vary across Canada, with Quebec differing through its cycle-based system.
Post-secondary Education: Universities focus on research/knowledge, whereas colleges focus on job-related skills.
Governance Structures: Universities often adopt bicameral governance, while colleges are governed by boards.
Private vs. Public: Private and public post-secondary institutions differ in terms of funding and governance.
Aboriginal Post-secondary Choices: Aboriginal students have specific post-secondary options including First Nations community colleges and universities.
The Role of the Curriculum
Curriculum
Content of schooling
Prepares students to become future workers and citizens
Social construction, as Robson argues
Social constructions can be many things we see in society that are natural but are created by people.
Two Dimensions:
Formal Curriculum
Hidden Curriculum
Formal curriculum:
Consists of content and processes of instruction which are shaped by the selection of educational materials such as books and teaching aids
Hidden Curriculum:
“A set of unwritten unofficial and often unintended lessons, values, and perspectives that students learn in school that includes norms, behaviours, beliefs, and attitudes that are not explicitly part of the academic curriculum but are conveyed through school culture”
often Includes educator’s values, their unquestioned assumptions, expectations, and the physical and social environments of the school
Curriculum (contd):
Each province and territory develops its own curriculum
For example, in Ontario, the Ontario Ministry of Education is responsible for developing the curriculum
They publish detailed curriculum documents for each subject area and grade level, and these documents for each subject area and grade.
These documents outline the learning expectations for students.
While provinces have a set curriculum, schools and teachers have flexibility in how they deliver the content.
This means that they can adapt lessons to the needs of their students or incorporate local issues and interests.
Formal Curriculum - History
Karen takes us through the history of the formal curriculum and highlights that racism shows up in subjects like history, literature, social sciences, and science in Ontario.
The history curriculum often exhibits a dominant cultural bias that expresses itself in the way history textbooks are written.
Written History
It is a reflection of the perceptions of those who tell the story, describe the events, and interpret them.
Ontario’s history curriculum has traditionally prioritized the history of European settlers, particularly British and French, while marginalizing or omitting the histories of Indigenous peoples and other racialized groups.
The narrative usually centers around the European discovery settlement and nation-building efforts.
It casts colonizers in a heroic light and underplays the harm inflicted on Indigenous communities.
Example #1 Indigenous Peoples History:
The history curriculum of Indigenous Peoples typically begins when white people discover them
The curriculum has been criticized for framing colonization as a positive or inevitable step in the development of Canada.
It ignores genocidal policies, land theft, and systemic violence that’s inflicted on Indigenous peoples.
This Eurocentric perspective downplays the deep and lasting impacts of colonialism on Indigenous populations.
Despite the calls for increased focus on Truth and Reconciliation, especially after the finding of the TRC, the curriculum has been slowed to fully integrate Indigenous knowledge systems histories and the true scope of colonial violence.
Example #2 Black History:
The history of black Canadians, including their contributions and struggles, is often underrepresented in the Ontario curriculum as well
Although there is some mention of black figures in events such as the role of black loyalists and the Underground Railroad, these discussions are usually brief and do not reflect the full scope of black contributions.
The curriculum also tends to overlook slavery in Canada
Canada black history month in February is often the time when black history is highlighted in schools, which creates the perception that black history is separate from mainstream Canadian history rather than being an integral part of Canadian history
This approach contributes to the marginalization of black experiences
Example #3 Chinese, Japanese, South Asian, and Middle Eastern Canadian history:
This approach also affects other types of racialized people
For example, the Chinese head Tax and the Japanese internment camps during World War II are significant aspects of Canadian history that are not consistently addressed in the history curriculum.
Efforts to change
Following advocacy from educators and community leaders, schools are now placing more emphasis on black history that goes beyond the month.
This includes teaching about the history of black Canadians, such as the slave trade and the underground railroad, and the struggles and contributions of black communities in Canada, such as their role in labour movements and civil rights.
Some schools have incorporated units on systemic racism and the legacy of slavery.
The Ontario government and school boards have made efforts to revise the curriculum to incorporate more discussions on anti-black racism, colonialism, and also systemic inequality.
For example:
In February of this year, during black history month, Steven Leche announced that the government is introducing mandatory learning on the contributions of black Canadians to history courses in grades 7, 8, and 10.
The province is launching consultations with historians, educators, and the black community right now to develop the additions to the curriculum set to role out September 2025
Formal Curriculum - Science
Science is often perceived as a neutral and objective discipline however, critics argue that the curriculum as taught in schools can reinforce systemic inequalities and biases.
this is particularly through the erasing of Indigenous knowledge
The Ontario science curriculum, like many others, is traditionally focused on the achievements of primarily European and North American scientists
Figures such as Isaac Newton, Charles Darwin and Albert Einstein are often emphasized, while the contributions of non-white scientists are largely ignored or underrepresented
The science curriculum often also centers on male scientists
While minimizing or completely omitting the work of pioneering women in science
Women such as Marie Curie, Rosalyn Franklin, or Katherine Johnson are either briefly mentioned or left out entirely
Formal Curriculum - English
Through the formal curriculum, students learn that knowledge is valued, and we can see this in the English curriculum.
Through the English curriculum, we can see that knowledge is valued when students are taught literary classics.
We should be questioning what makes a book a classic.
Traditional Western Literary Classics
Include works that are predominantly by white European male authors such as Shakespeare, Homer, and Dickens.
This often marginalizes the voices of women, black Indigenous and racialized peoples, 2SLGBTQIA+ plus individuals in non-western cultures whose experiences and perspectives are often absent or overlooked.
Worldviews in many classic texts reflect Western Eurocentric values and experiences.
This often alienates students from diverse cultural backgrounds who may not see their identities or histories being represented.
Many classical works even reflect the colonial ideologies of their time, often depicting non-Western cultures through an ethnocentric or racist lens.
For example:
Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and Rudyard Kipling’s The Jungle Book have been criticized for reinforcing colonialist views of African and Indigenous peoples
Focusing heavily on Western classics limits students’ exposure to different worldviews, cultures, and philosophies.
Critics argue that this diminishes the educational experiences by failing to offer students a truly global and diverse perspective on the literature and human experience.
This classic must be critically examined in the classroom, and students should be encouraged to question the underlying assumptions, biases, and cultural values.
Overall, a diverse and inclusive literary curriculum allows students to see themselves reflected in the texts they read and to further develop empathy for others whose experiences are different from their own
This can help promote equity, inclusivity, and a deeper understanding of the world.
Hidden Curriculum
Examples of Hidden Curriculum
In the classroom:
Who is called on more frequently, and whose opinions are valued in discussions?
What kind of knowledge is prioritized?
In the school
Dress codes, policies on discipline
what cultural holidays are acknowledged?
Racism is often produced through the hidden curriculum:
School calendars show you what holidays are celebrated and which ones are ignored
Concerts and festivals the school has on their bulletin boards in the hallway
As well as in the collections of books in the school library
Other forms of hidden curriculum include things like
dress codes, which teach students about gender, body image, and also respectability
In addition, the way discipline is handled can convey messages about power, control, and authority
Curriculum Accountability
Robson identifies two main ways that curriculum accountability is maintained:
Informal way (Media pressure)
The tool of accountability (Standardized testing procedures)
Tool of accountability or standardized testing
There are two ways that teachers can evaluate students’ work and understanding of materials:
Formative Assessments
Tools and strategies used by educators to monitor and evaluate student learning during the instructional process rather than at the end of a learning unit or course
Primary purpose: To provide ongoing feedback that can help both teachers and students identify areas of strength and areas where more support is needed
They can take on many forms, Such as quizzes, class discussions, peer reviews, observations, assignments, concept maps, or even informal checks for understanding.
They often involve students in their learning process, encouraging self-assessment.
Summative assessments
Evaluations that are used to measure student learning knowledge proficiency or success at the end of an instructional period, such as the conclusion of a unit or term course, or even academic year
Primary Purpose: Intended to assess the outcomes of learning and typically result in grades or scores that contribute significantly to a student’s overall evaluation
Standardized testing
The process of giving the same curriculum-based test to all students at a particular level in a particular jurisdiction
In Ontario, our standardized testing is called the EQAO.
EQAO testing
Stands for the Education Quality and Accountability Office
arms-length government agency overseeing the standardized math and literacy tests
are written in grades 3, 6, 9 and 10 since 1996
The purpose is to provide data on how well students meet the Ontario curriculum.
Supports student improvement and helps guide policies
It also helps parents, educators, and policymakers understand student performance and highlights areas that may need additional support
How does it work?
Grade 3 and 6 assessments:
Focus on reading, writing, and mathematics
Multiple-choice and open-response questions
Grade 9 Mathetics test
Assesses applied and academic mathematics skills.
Ontario Secondary School Literacy Test (OSSLT)
Mandatory literacy test for high school students
Tests writing abilities necessary for graduation
Levels of achievement
Level 1: Below provincial standard (Below 50%)
Level 2: Approaching the provincial standard (50-59%)
Level 3: Meets Provincial standard (60-79%)
Level 4: Exceeds provincial standard (80-100%)
Benefits of EQAO testing:
May support student learning and development
helps identify students who may need additional help or support in areas like reading, writing and math
Assists with school improvement and accountability
Schools analyze EQAO results to make informed decisions about areas where they need to focus resources or make curriculum adjustments.
Public accountability
Student performance results are made public, giving parents and communities insight into how well schools and boards are performing promoting transparency and accountability.
May assist with educator professional development
Helps highlight areas where teachers may need additional support or training
Equity and Inclusion
Reveals gaps in student achievement based on factors such as socioeconomic background, language proficiency, or special education needs so that school boards can develop targeted strategies to support these students and ensure equitable access to education
Criticisms of EQAO testing:
Stressful for students
Many students report feeling anxious or stressed due to the high-stakes nature of the test, particularly because results can impact school rankings and reputations.
EQAO results are often used as a measure of teacher and school effectiveness, and this leads to an overemphasis on accountability
Some argue that this fosters a punitive atmosphere rather than a collaborative and supportive environment for education.
Very costly
Some argue that the money spent on these assessments could be better invested in classroom resources, teacher training, or student support services.
Equity concerns
Critics argue that standardized tests do not account for varying circumstances that influence student performance, such as access to resources, school funding, and family.
They might not also account for cultural and linguistic diversity, often disadvantaging students from non-English speaking or marginalized communities.
Teaching to the test
Teachers may tend to focus on preparing students for the test rather than providing a more holistic and engaged learning experience.
Robson refers to this as “teaching to the test”
Narrow view of academic achievement
EQAO tests primarily assess student skills in math, reading, and writing, which may lead to a narrow focus on the classroom
Critics argue that this leaves out other important factors, such as creativity, critical thinking, social skills, and also emotional development.
Although the EQAO itself does not publish school rankings, third-party organizations sometimes use the publicly available data to create rankings based on EQAO scores.
This can influence public perceptions of school quality.
The Frasier Institute Rankings
are school performance rankings published annually by the institute
These rankings are primarily based on the results of standardized tests such as the EQAO
The institute rankings are intended to provide parents, educators, and policymakers with information on how individual schools perform relative to one another
It is also to help parents make informed decisions about where to send their children to school
The idea is that these rankings can be used to assess school quality
They are positioned as a way to also promote school accountability and drive improvement by highlighting underperforming schools
Critiques:
Critics argue that these rankings place too much emphasis on standardized test scores and that they do not capture the full range of the school’s quality.
Including extracurriculars, social development, or even the school culture
There is concern that the rankings may enforce inequalities as schools and wealthier neighbourhoods tend to perform better on these tests due to advantages like greater resources, smaller class sizes and more parental involvement
This can also create additional pressure on schools to focus heavily on improving test scores, potentially leading to teaching the test
Influences on Curriculum
The specific content of education is often subject to debate
In Ontario, there have been several instances in recent years where parents and community members have advocated for the banning or restriction of certain books in schools
These advocacy efforts often revolve around issues such as language, sexual content, racial themes, and violence.
Example #1 To Kill A Mockingbird:
In 2021, some parents in Ontario called for the removal of Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird because of concerns about its use of the n-word and its portrayal of racial themes
Some parents argued the book language was harmful to black students and perpetuated racism
While this was happening, educators and other parents defended its inclusion, emphasizing its role in discussions about race and morality.
Example #2 Heartstopper and Gender Queer:
Various graphic novels that depicted LGBTQ+ characters have also faced challenges in Ontario schools, such as Heartstopper by Alice Osman or Gender Queer, a memoir by Kaya Kabi, as parents argue that they promote ideologies that are contrary to their values
Advocates for these books argue, however, that they’re important for representation and inclusivity in education
Example #3 Handmaid’s Tale:
Has faced challenges in various Ontario schools, particularly after the rise of discussions on gender and sexual rights
Some parents have expressed concerns about the book’s graphic depictions of violence against women and its sexual content, arguing that it is inappropriate for high school students
educators and other parents have defended this book, stating that it prompts important discussions about feminism and society
Example #4 The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-time Indian:
It deals with themes of race identity and poverty
This book has faced challenges due to its language and depiction of sensitive topics
Parents who have called for the removal of this book argue that it contains inappropriate content for the children
Supporters of this book argue that it is a valuable resource for understanding the experiences of Indigenous peoples in the north.
More Recent Examples
Example #1: The TDSB field trip that turned into a protest
A field trip to attend a rally in support of the Grassy Narrows First Nation community suffering from mercury pollution turned into a protest as some students began a pro-Palestinian protest alongside it
Parents argued that students were put at risk and were exposed to traumatic material, and the school board had to apologize
The TDSB was going to conduct an investigation but suspended it, which has raided further concerns
This prompted those to ask why the TDSB was having students participate in protests as part of their curriculum, stating that politics have no place in the classroom
Influences on the Curriculum: Political and Cultural Groups
Canadian Jewish Congress objects to elementary school children having access to a book called Three Wishes: Palestinian and Jewish Children Speak
The book, published in 2004, presents the voices of Israeli and Palestinian children who share their experiences living in a conflict zone.
It was initially included in Ontario schools as a recommended resource course for grade 6 students as part of a Silver Birch program, encouraging young readers to explore important issues.
The Canadian Jewish Congress expressed concerns that the book’s portrayal of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict was not balanced and might present a biased perspective.
They argued that the book could create misunderstandings about the conflict and reinforce stereotypes among impressionable young readers.
Many supporters of this book argued that it was an important tool for helping children understand complex global issues like war, conflict, and the human impact of political violence.
The removal of the book from the reading list raised concerns about censorship and the role of educators in deciding what children should be exposed to
In 1991 To Kill a Mocking Bird was challenged by the group Public Responsibility in Uniting and Defending the Earth (PRUDE) in New Brunswick Canada
Raised concern about the books used in the school curriculum due to their portrayal of black people and repeated use of the n-word.
Their concerns were centred on the potential emotional and psychological harm that this book could cause students who are racialized to feel targeted or uncomfortable
PRUDE called for the removal of the book from the Fredericton School District curriculum or at least from the grade 10 English program
They argued that alternative texts could discuss similar issues without the use of racist language
Despite PRUDE’s efforts, however, the book was not removed from the curriculum in New Brunswick
The controversy however led to increased discussion on how to address difficult topics like race and injustice in the classroom
It also raised questions about whether literature that contains offensive language can still have educational value if it sparks necessary conversations about social issues
Other Perspectives on Banning Books
When asked about banning books, librarians at the North Nanaimo branch of Vancouver Island Regional Library state that they try to offer the widest variety of materials
They follow the Canadian Library’s association statement of intellectual freedom holding the belief that it is an individual responsibility and right to choose what materials to read
and this includes parents monitoring the materials their children have access to
Overall the formal curriculum is indeed a social institution
The Ministry of Education is made up of people who hold certain beliefs that dictate what children should be learning
They decide what children should be learning based on their own beliefs, values, and morals, about what future workers and citizens should look like
Not just on their personal beliefs but the beliefs of the predominant society
The curriculum they create is objective
HOWEVER, studies show that parents want balance not bias in their classrooms
9 out of 10 parents believe the curriculum should focus on facts however, it is more so based on people’s beliefs right now, as shown throughout
There is a constant debate about what people should be learning in school
The Current Debate: Toronto District School Board Trustee Meeting video
Earlier this year, two trustees brought forward a motion to restrict political activism in schools
The motion asked for a report to be submitted to the committee outlining existing policies about political activism
Throughout the video, those in support of the notion argued that
teaching young children about genocide, protests, and activism is encouraging them to hate other certain groups, especially Israelis and Jewish people now
They argue that politics 9000 miles away have nothing to do with education and that politics have no place in the classroom
They believe that the school board needs to create a standardized way of approaching politics and human rights subjects in the classroom
They believe that the TDSB should not allow political lobbyists to teach our children
They believe that there needs to be an attempt at removing politics from human rights policies, meaning staff are not authorized to implement things that are not supported by policy
Those against the notion argued
This notion is McCarthyism, and we need to protect students by giving them access and teaching them about politics
They argue that this notion seeks to restrict the charter-protected rights of working people and their ability to make concerted political activity by exercising their rights to free assembly and free speech
Argue that these policies effectively erase racialized identities and Palestinian and erase teachers’ and educators’ ability to learn how to affirm their students’ identities and address subjects like this in the classroom
What is considered political changes over time
Case of the Ontario Sex Education Curriculum
Since 1998, the update to the curriculum included topics such as
the importance of same-sex relationships,
discussions of gender identity
consent
a more inclusive way of addressing the dangers of sharing sexual content online
discussions of puberty to start as early as grade 4.
Conservative and religious groups argued that some of the content was inappropriate for the age groups that it targeted
For example, they felt that discussions around same-sex relationships in grade three or masturbation in later grades were deemed by some parents as being introduced way too early
Some felt the curriculum overstepped the boundaries of what school should be teaching, infringing on family beliefs about morality and sexuality
Many claimed that it conflicted with their beliefs (some with cultural beliefs) and that children should not be exposed to what they considered to be adult topics or topics that go against their cultural values
Much of the backlash the curriculum got was fueled by misinformation
Some groups characterized the content of the new curriculum, as suggesting that it was teaching explicit sexual practices to young children, which was not the case
These campaigns contributed to heightened anxiety among parents
the Sexed curriculum became a political hot-button issue
The progressive conservative government led by Doug Ford promised to repeal the curriculum as part of their 2018 election platform appealing to voters concerned about parental rights and moral values
However once they won in 2018 this led to widespread protests, particularly from two LGBTQIA+ advocacy groups, educators, and also students
They argued that the outdated curriculum did not reflect the realities of modern life and it failed to protect students from harm
Many teachers also expressed that they were being forced to teach a curriculum that did not meet student needs
This then led to Doug Ford creating a sex ed snitch line to complain about teachers not abiding by the repeal
Teachers unions saw this as a ridiculous attempt at attacking teachers
The Canadian Civil Liberties Association and the Elementary Teachers Federation of Ontario tried to see the Ontario government over its decision to revert to the 1998 sex curriculum based on THREE main points:
1. The government’s decision was not consistent with the Ontario Education Act which required the province to provide an inclusive environment
2. The decision is inconsistent with the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, specifically the equality of Rights and Security of the person
3. the decision violates the Ontario Human Rights code
A divisional court rules that it is the role of elected officials, not the courts, to make legislation and policy decisions, so this case didn’t end up going anywhere
This, however, led to public consultations that gathered over 72,000 submissions which led the Ontario Government led by Doug Ford to introduce a revised Sex Education curriculum
This reintroduced many of the “controversial” topics from 2015 but with some adjustments to please the conservative and religious critics
For example, discussions about gender identity and sexual orientation were moved to later grades
The government made an effort to present LGBTQIA topics in a way more acceptable to conservative groups and framed it as part of fostering inclusivity and anti-bullying efforts
Parents under this new curriculum were given the right to exempt their children from certain parts of the sex education curriculum.
However, some argued that this would lead to students missing out on discussions about consent and healthy relationships
Critiques of the Revised Sex Ed Curriculum
The Elementary Teachers Federation of Ontario argued that it was concerning to allow exemptions for issues covered by the Human Rights Code
Other groups argued that the government had caved to pressure from vocal minority groups and watered down important content from the conversation
Some conservative groups however also argued it was still too explicit
Overall, the conversation about the curriculum is still ongoing
conservative and religious groups continue to argue that certain topics should be left out of schools and that education should reflect traditional values
Historical Events in Canadian Curriculum Development
Pre-Industrial Canada (before 1840s):
Education was family and church-based; no systematic curriculum for young people.
The Jesuit Ratio Studiorum in New France (1600s)
marked the early development of education for males aspiring to the priesthood.
The Ursulines (1639) provided education for girls, focusing on religious doctrine, basic literacy, and domestic skills.
In Upper Canada and other regions, education was minimal and inconsistent before the 1840s, with some regions using "moving schools" that rotated teachers among parishes.
Victorian Canada (1841–1892):
The United Province of Canada was created in 1841, leading to increased immigration and industrial growth.
Egerton Ryerson
was a key figure in developing a formal curriculum in Upper Canada, aiming to assimilate new immigrants and align with international education systems.
Ryerson advocated for non-sectarian education, common textbooks, and public funding.
His reforms were adopted across Canada, with exceptions in Quebec (due to religious influence) and Newfoundland (due to denominational divides).
Core subjects included English, mathematics, geography, history, and natural sciences.
Modernization and Curricular Reforms (1892–1920):
During this period, mass immigration led to rapid population growth and expansion of the education system.
New Education reforms introduced fewer traditional subjects, including home economics, agricultural studies, and physical education.
Kindergarten was also introduced during this time.
A major purpose of education was the assimilation of immigrants to Anglo-Saxon values and maintaining Canadian distinctiveness from American influence.
Early Textbooks: Loyalty to the British Empire and Christian Values
Introduction of Required Textbooks (1846):
Egerton Ryerson introduced required textbooks in Upper Canada, initially adopting Irish readers to avoid American influence.
A Canadian series of these readers was created in 1867, promoting a Canadian identity in education.
Content of Textbooks (1846–1910):
Textbooks promoted morality aligned with upper-class values, focusing on hard work, acceptance of suffering, and one's place in the social order (Baldus & Kassam, 1996).
British Columbia textbooks (1872–1925): Loyalty to the British Empire and literal biblical interpretations were key themes, although the focus on the Bible decreased by the 1880s (Van Brummelen, 1983).
Textbooks emphasized Christian values as essential for a productive life, but over time shifted from literal to general Christian morality.
Purpose of Textbooks:
Reflected the values and morals of educational leaders who aimed to socialize children in line with a common Canadian vision.
Early textbooks emphasized loyalty to the British Empire, a theme found across most Canadian provinces in the early 20th century (Sheehan, 1990).
Curriculum Reforms:
1920 to Post-World War II
1920-1940 New Education Reforms:
Influenced by progressive education movements, focused on experiential learning over memorization.
Subjects like social studies emerged, combining geography, civic education, and history to foster democratic and cooperative behaviour.
Alberta led in adopting progressive reforms in the 1930s, with other provinces following in the 1940s.
Post-World War II (1945–1980):
Despite efforts to resist American influence, the post-war Canadian curriculum incorporated scientific testing from the U.S., while cultural content remained British.
The Cold War led to an increased focus on science and mathematics in response to public concern over competitiveness with the Soviet Union.
1960s curriculum shift:
Pressures arose to make education more relevant to students' practical needs and responsive to a more diverse population. Advocacy groups (e.g., federal agencies, labour unions, and human rights organizations) pushed for multicultural, non-sexist, and non-racist curricula.
Quebec’s Quiet Revolution (1960s):
Overhauled education by replacing Catholic Church control with government administration, aiming to modernize Quebec’s economy and culture. French-language education became mandatory for new immigrants.
1980s Centralization:
Curriculum reforms focused on increasing accountability through standardized testing and emphasizing core skills (reading, writing, and mathematics).
Teacher inclusion in curriculum reform became common, following resistance to top-down reforms.
1990 to Present Day
1990s Reforms:
Large curriculum reforms in response to poor international rankings and high dropout rates.
Emphasis on inclusiveness and engaging diverse perspectives.
New curriculum:
Core academic subjects with optional, interest-based subjects.
Focus on career-related skills (technology, communication) to prepare students for the workforce and reduce dropout rates.
Council of Ministers of Education (CMEC):
Established in 1967 for provincial collaboration on curriculum.
Coordinated student assessments and projects like the Pan-Canadian Science Project (PCSP)—aimed at uniform science outcomes from kindergarten to Grade 12.
Provinces began adopting PCSP.
Pan-Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in School Curriculum (1995):
Aimed to improve education quality and foster cooperation between provinces and territories.
Western provinces and territories signed the Western Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Basic Education (K-12) (1993).
Atlantic Provinces established the Atlantic Provinces Education Foundation (1995).
Both aimed for common curriculum outcomes and assessment methods.
Influences on Curriculum
Parental Influence:
Parents exert influence, often through complaints that curricular content contrasts with their moral and religious beliefs.
Censorship Issues:
Some parents challenge books in schools (e.g., The Handmaid’s Tale, To Kill a Mockingbird) over concerns about profanity, racial stereotyping, or religious content.
Religious Opposition:
Parents challenge content like Harry Potter for its portrayal of witchcraft or oppose teaching evolution and sexual health.
Political/Cultural Group Influence:
Organizations also challenge curricular content (e.g., Canadian Jewish Congress, Council of Turkish Canadians).
Challenges often revolve around politically sensitive topics such as genocide, history, and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.
Private-Sector Influence:
Corporations provide free teaching resources on specific topics (e.g., Canadian Nuclear Association, Kellogg’s, Dove Canada, Procter & Gamble).
These resources often include lesson plans, materials, and activities aligned with provincial curriculum standards.
Controversial Subjects in Different Provinces Evolution & HIV/AIDS:
Curriculum on these topics varies by province.
Most provinces introduce evolutionary theory in high school biology, while some (e.g., British Columbia, PEI, Quebec) start earlier.
HIV/AIDS is discussed from Grades 3 to 8, depending on the province.
Sexual Health and Homosexuality:
Sexual health education varies widely; some provinces lack formal curricula (e.g., Quebec).
Discussion of homosexuality is limited in some provincial curricula (e.g., Saskatchewan).
Bill 44 (Alberta, 2009) Legislation:
Bill 44 allows parents to remove their children from classes that discuss religion, sexual orientation, or sexual health.
Requires schools to notify parents when these topics will be discussed.
Controversy arose, with teachers and human rights groups opposing it, fearing increased tensions and human rights complaints in classrooms.
Ontario Sex Education Controversy (2010):
Proposed changes to sex education to teach Grade 3 students about sexual orientation and Grade 7 students about anal and oral sex.
The backlash from faith-based groups led to the scrapping the proposed changes.
Curriculum Accountability
Accountability in Curriculum:
Provinces and school boards use various measures to ensure that the curriculum is followed, primarily through standardized testing and, informally, through media pressure.
Standardized Testing: A formal accountability measure, used to evaluate if students are learning according to the curriculum.
Media Pressure: Informal accountability arises when media outlets publicize test results, creating public scrutiny around school and district performance.
Evaluation and Assessment of Students
Formative Assessment:
Involves feedback given during the learning process (e.g., drafts of essays, journal reflections).
Aimed at helping students understand the material better and is not graded.
Improves student learning and enhances summative assessments.
Summative Assessment:
Evaluates student performance at the end of a unit (e.g., quizzes, tests, essays, projects).
Used to determine how well students have understood the material.
Standardized Testing:
Used across Canada with significant variation in grades and subjects depending on the province.
Aims to measure whether students are meeting provincial learning outcomes.
Results contribute to accountability by reflecting whether teachers are following the mandated curriculum.
Large-Scale Assessments (LAS)
Credentialing Exams in Grade 12:
High-stakes exams are used for graduation and diploma purposes.
Exam grades can account for a significant portion of the final grade (up to 50% in some provinces).
These assessments are also used by post-secondary institutions for admission purposes.
Variations Across Provinces:
Provinces like Alberta have extensive testing systems, while others, like Prince Edward Island, have fewer assessments.
Alberta:
Tests in Grades 3, 6, 9, and 12 across various subjects.
Prince Edward Island:
Focus on reading and mathematics assessments in select grades, with no high school diploma exams.
British Columbia:
Assessments in reading, writing, and numeracy at multiple grade levels, with credentialing exams in Grade 12.
Saskatchewan:
Rotating assessments in different years and grades are often based on samples of students rather than entire grades.
Media Pressure and Public Scrutiny
Role of Media:
The results of standardized tests are often publicized, allowing comparisons between schools and districts.
Media pressure can create a sense of competition among schools, though critics argue this oversimplifies the many factors influencing student success.
Fraser Institute Report Cards:
Ranks schools based on student performance on large-scale assessments in British Columbia, Alberta, Ontario, and Quebec.
Controversial as critics argue it pits schools against each other and fails to account for diverse contributing factors to student achievement.
National-Level Assessments
Council of Ministers of Education, Canada (CMEC):
Oversees pan-Canadian assessments, allowing for comparison of student performance across provinces.
Student Achievement Indicators Program (SAIP):
Introduced in 1993, assessed subjects like mathematics, reading, and science among students aged 13 and 16.
Replaced by the Pan Canadian Assessment Program (PCAP) in 2007 to reflect curriculum changes and international assessment standards.
Pan Canadian Assessment Program (PCAP):
Tests 13-year-olds in science, mathematics, and reading.
Focuses on different subjects in rotating years (e.g., reading in 2007, mathematics in 2010).
Random samples of students across Canada participate, with data used to evaluate both provincial and national performance.
Canadian Education and Large-Scale Assessments (PISA 2015)
Canada performs well on the OECD's PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) in reading, ranking 2nd out of 69 countries.
Boys and girls perform at high levels in reading, with boys ranked 3rd and girls ranked 4th.
Canada has a low percentage of low performers in reading and a high percentage of top performers.
Criticism of large-scale assessments includes arguments that
they focus too much on test performance rather than fostering creativity and are influenced by socioeconomic factors.
Alberta's heavy reliance on assessments is associated with lower high school graduation rates progressing into post-secondary education.
Hidden Curriculum
Historical curricula in Canada promoted loyalty to the British Empire and upheld Christian values.
There has been significant evolution in the curriculum over the decades, with increased attention to diversity and the rejection of Eurocentric viewpoints.
Curriculum development has varied regionally in Canada, reflecting different socio-historical influences, with Quebec and British Columbia showing notably different approaches to subjects like mathematics.
Multicultural Curriculum and Its Evolution
Canada’s multicultural policy, implemented in 1971, has shaped educational practices, promoting the preservation of cultural heritage and fostering healthy intergroup relations.
The development of multicultural education in Canada has passed through five stages:
Assimilation – Non-dominant cultures were seen as deficiencies.
Adaptation – Cultural differences were viewed as exotic.
Accommodation – Focused on equality of opportunity and inclusion of ethnic studies.
Incorporation – Emphasized hiring teachers from diverse backgrounds and promoting intergroup relations.
Integration – A more global view where anti-racist pedagogy becomes part of the curriculum, though this has been limited in practice.
Challenges with Multicultural Education
Teacher training has not consistently prepared educators to handle multicultural classrooms, leading to anxiety and resistance.
Curricula often present multiculturalism as harmonious while minimizing conflict, which can alienate students who experience discrimination.
Success in multicultural education depends on effective teacher training, as well as regional variations in language offerings and curricular priorities.
Quebec’s Approach to Multiculturalism
Quebec has developed an intercultural education system, which aims to integrate immigrants into the French-speaking culture, in contrast to the multicultural approach seen in other provinces.
Aboriginal Knowledge and Curriculum in Canada
St. Denis (2007) and Aikenhead (2006) argue that Aboriginal students have experienced racialization through Canada's curriculum, which largely reflects a Western European scientific worldview.
This focus on positivism and objective reality marginalizes alternative forms of knowledge, such as the holistic and relational approaches found in Aboriginal traditions, which emphasize spirituality, wisdom, and harmony with nature. Critics argue that the task-focused, linear, and passive learning approaches used in Canadian schools clash with Indigenous ways of knowing, leading to alienation and disengagement among Aboriginal students. Aikenhead (2006) refers to this imposition of Eurocentric views as cognitive imperialism, whereby the dominant worldview devalues other knowledge systems.
White Privilege and Multicultural Curriculum
Schick and St. Denis (2005) discuss how multicultural education in Canada often begins with a flawed assumption that Canadian culture is "raceless" and benevolent, ignoring the role of White privilege in perpetuating inequalities.
The concept of meritocracy, which suggests that success is purely a result of hard work, fails to account for the systemic advantages that White students experience.
Critical race theorists argue that the curriculum is biased, holding Whiteness as the invisible norm and using White student success as the benchmark for comparison.
Efforts to Address the Problem
Efforts to address these inequalities include anti-racist pedagogy, which encourages both teachers and students to recognize how White privilege affects life chances. However, such discussions often lead to discomfort, as teachers may resist the idea that they unconsciously reinforce racist practices.
Moreover, the character education initiative introduced under Dalton McGuinty's Liberal government is noted as a subtle means to foster multiculturalism by promoting empathy and respect among students.
There have also been efforts to integrate Aboriginal knowledge into Canadian curricula. Provinces like British Columbia and Saskatchewan have started incorporating Aboriginal teachings into science education, and teacher training programs, such as
those at Brock University, are partnering with Aboriginal communities to prepare educators in these areas.