AP Psych

Intelligence: The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
Charles Spearman: A psychologist who proposed that a single general intelligence (g) underlies all cognitive abilities.
General Intelligence (G): A factor that Spearman believed contributes to all intellectual abilities, reflecting broad cognitive potential.
Factor Analysis: A statistical method used to identify clusters of related abilities or skills, often applied in intelligence research.
LL Thurstone & Primary Mental Abilities: Thurstone identified seven independent abilities (e.g., verbal comprehension, numerical ability) rather than a single general intelligence.
Fluid Intelligence (Gf): The capacity to think logically and solve new problems, independent of previously acquired knowledge.
Crystallized Intelligence (Gc): Knowledge and skills acquired through experience and education, which tend to increase over time.
Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory: A model that combines fluid and crystallized intelligence with other cognitive abilities in a comprehensive framework.
Howard Gardner & Multiple Intelligences: Gardner's theory that people possess various independent intelligences, such as linguistic, spatial, and interpersonal.
Savant Syndrome: A rare condition in which a person with mental disabilities displays extraordinary abilities in a specific area.
Robert Sternberg & Triarchic Intelligence: Sternberg’s model of intelligence, comprising analytical, creative, and practical intelligences.
Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals, believed to contribute to success beyond traditional intelligence.
Emotional Intelligence: The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively.

2.8b Intelligence and Achievement: Assessing Intelligence

Intelligence Test: A tool designed to measure a person's mental capabilities relative to others.
Achievement Test: A test assessing knowledge or skills that a person has learned.
Aptitude Test: A test designed to predict a person's future ability to learn new skills or perform certain tasks.
Alfred Binet: A French psychologist who created the first intelligence test to identify students needing additional academic support.
Mental Age: The level of intellectual functioning compared to the average performance of individuals in the same age group.
Stanford-Binet: An intelligence test based on Binet’s original test, adapted by Lewis Terman for use in the United States.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): A score derived from standardized tests, intended to measure an individual's cognitive abilities.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): A widely used intelligence test that includes both verbal and performance subtests.
Psychometric: The field of study concerned with the theory and technique of measuring psychological attributes, such as intelligence.
Standardization: The process of establishing norms and consistent procedures for administering a test.
Normal Curve: A bell-shaped curve that represents the distribution of scores, with most falling near the average.
Flynn Effect: The observed increase in average IQ scores over generations, likely due to various environmental factors.
Reliability: The consistency of a test in measuring what it aims to measure over time.
Internal Reliability examines if all parts of a test contribute equally to measuring the same concept. For example, do all questions in an intelligence test align with the construct of intelligence being measured?
External Reliability assesses if a test provides consistent results over repeated applications. For instance, if a person takes the test today and again in two weeks, the scores should be similar if intelligence has not changed.
Test-Retest Reliability specifically measures the stability of test results over time. A test has strong test-retest reliability if individuals’ scores remain consistent across multiple administrations.
Inter-Rater Reliability evaluates the agreement among different evaluators or scorers. This is especially important for subjective assessments, such as interpreting open-ended responses in intelligence tests. High inter-rater reliability means scorers largely agree on the evaluation of responses.
Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.
Content Validity: The degree to which a test samples the behavior or knowledge it is supposed to assess.
Predictive Validity: The extent to which a test accurately predicts future performance or outcomes.

2.8c Intelligence and Achievement: Stability of & Influences on Intelligence

Cross-Sectional Study: A study that compares individuals of different ages at one point in time.
Longitudinal Study: A study that follows the same individuals over a period to observe changes over time.
Cohort: A group of individuals who share a common characteristic, often age, studied over time.
Growth Mindset: The belief that abilities, including intelligence, can develop through effort and learning.
Fixed Mindset: The belief that abilities, including intelligence, are static and unchangeable.
Carol Dweck: A psychologist known for her research on growth and fixed mindsets and their impact on motivation and achievement.

2.8d Intelligence and Achievement: Group Differences & the Question of Bias

Gender-Related Similarities & Differences: Research on cognitive abilities has found more similarities than differences between genders, but some small differences do exist. For example, females tend to perform slightly better on tasks involving verbal fluency, reading comprehension, and some fine motor skills, while males tend to perform better on certain spatial tasks, like mental rotation, and on some math-related tasks, though these differences often decrease with age and education. It’s important to consider that social expectations, educational experiences, and cultural biases contribute significantly to these observed differences. Many psychologists stress that individual abilities and interests are far more variable within each gender than between genders, meaning these trends should not be used to predict an individual’s intelligence or potential.
Racial & Ethnic Similarities & Differences: Differences in average intelligence test scores among racial and ethnic groups have been documented, but research attributes these gaps primarily to environmental, socio-economic, and educational disparities rather than inherent racial differences. Factors such as access to quality education, healthcare, nutrition, and exposure to environmental stressors significantly influence cognitive development and test performance. Additionally, the historical and systemic impacts of discrimination can limit resources and opportunities, impacting achievement. Psychologists emphasize that intelligence is shaped by a complex interplay of factors and caution against interpreting group averages as reflective of an individual’s potential or ability, as intelligence is highly individualized.
Stereotype Threat: The anxiety or concern that one might confirm a negative stereotype about their group, which can affect performance.