Theories

Importance

• used to describe, explain and predict development

• directs attention on certain causes/processes/outcomes

• generates testable hypotheses that are able to be revised when evidence does not support them

• comparisons allows for recognition of assumptions regarding nature/nurture, continuity, context etc.

Questions To Ask

→ explain? (main unit of development? mechanisms that cause change? development = gradual or stages?)

→ assumptions? (child = active/reactive? interactions of biology & experience? theory regarding cultures & historical periods?)

Biological/Evolutionary Perspectives

cause of development focuses in genes, nervous system, hormones, maturation, physical growth, with evolutionary theories exploring how inherited tendencies helped ancestors survive/reproduce.

gene = one contributor in developmental system !!

→ patterns of inheritance

• single gene patterns (dom/rec/sex-linked)

• complex traits (polygenic and multifactorial inheritance)

→ gene regulations

• epigenetics - environment changing gene expression by chemical tags w/o altering DNA sequence (behavior affects this)

• gene silencing - regulatory processes preventing gene expression

• epigenomics - examining epigenetic mark patterns on genome

Genes + Environment

• passive gene-environment correlation - caregivers providing genes and environments to child

• evocative correlation - child’s characteristics evoke reactions

• active correlation - autonomy gained; places that fit interests and dispositions chosen

• gene x environment interaction - experience effects differs on genotype, genetic effects differ through environments

Biological Patterning

(similar developments despite different environments)

• maturation - orderly biological clock in DNA regarding body & brain growth sequence

• canalization - genetic force that keeps humans developing on a typical track, requiring extreme environmental disruption to get it off track

!! plasticity - capacity to change in response to experience

Evolutionary Psychology

• ethology - study of animal behavior in natural contexts, with emphasis on typical behaviors & adaptive functions

  • critical period: narrow window needed for specific experience to achieve typical development

  • sensitive period: optimal time frame where learning is easiest but still possible later

Overall Limitations/Cautions -

• reductionistic if social/culture ignored

• evolutionary explanations = hard to test

• what evolved isn’t always morally desirable

Psychoanalytic Perspectives

emphasizes motives, emotions, conflicts and processes outside conscious awareness, where early experiences/relationships are influential.

development = inner needs management + response to social expectations/reality

Freud

• model of personality

  • id - biological drives (instinct) & immediate gratification

  • ego - reality-oriented regulation & delayed gratification

  • superego - moral standards & ideals

  • unconscious - thoughts/wishes/conflicts outside awareness; can influence behavior

  • libido - psychic energy/sexual drive associated with life instincts

  • defense mechanisms - unconscious strategies used by ego to reduce anxiety (e.g. denial)

• psychosexual stages (pleasure)

  • oral (birth-1yr) - mouth/feeding

  • anal (1-3yr) - elimination (potty training)

  • phallic (3-6yr) - genitals

  • latency (6yr-puberty) - sexual impulses = quiet; learning and peers prevalent

  • genital (adolescence+) - mature sexuality & intimate relationships

unresolved conflict/excess gratification at a stage → fixation

Erikson

• psychosocial crises

  • infancy - trust vs mistrust

  • toddlerhood - autonomy vs shame & doubt (independence?)

  • early childhood - initiative vs guilt (goals?)

  • middle childhood - industry vs inferiority (skills?)

  • adolescence - identity vs role confusion

  • young adulthood - intimacy vs isolation

  • middle adulthood - generativity vs stagnation (contribution to next generation?)

  • late adulthood - integrity vs despair (acceptance of lived life?)

Humanistic Perspectives

focuses on conscious experience, personal meaning, freedom, growth & potential, supported by relationships & environments that foster authenticity.

Maslow

• hierarchy of needs

  •