Online Test Revision

Details

When available

• NZST: Friday, 23 January, 9am - Monday, 26 January, 5pm

• CET (Bremen, Germany): Thursday, 22 January, 9:00pm - Monday, 26 January, 5:00am

Further Details

• 90 minutes post-opening

• 3 paragraph responses (300-400 words)

• No AI

• One direct quote allowed per question

Week 1: Origins

Focus: Whakapapa

Oral Traditions

• Definition: Mechanisms of knowledge transmission, not just stories, carrying collective memories and guiding future actions.

  • Maori narratives are purposeful constructs describing the universe and relationships between creator and creation.

• Importance of recognizing oral traditions as literature:

  • Passed down, refined, encoded for memory retention across generations.

Comparison of Worldviews

• Noting the differences in Maori thought compared to Western absolute truths:

  • Maori traditions may contain multiple narratives and perspectives that do not assert a single truth.

• Engaging with similarity between creation stories:

  • Common themes of creation from chaos and the establishment of order (light, day, life).

Maori Creation Narratives

• Emphasizing the diversity of Maori creation stories:

  • Not tied to one definitive narrative (e.g., Rangi and Papa) but encompass various interpretations across iwi.

• Examples of Maori traditions:

  • Te Kore: void/potential.

  • Te Po: darkness and spatial conception.

  • Te Ao Marama: the light and physical realm of existence.

• Highlighting the non-linear nature of Maori narratives, existing beyond time constraints.

Rangi and Papa Creation Story

• Discussion of major figures: Rangi (Sky father) and Papa (Earth mother).

  • Their separation leads to the emergence of light and physical reality.

  • The gods (children of Rangi and Papa) represent various elements of the natural world.

• Analysis of the implications of sibling dynamics among the gods, particularly Tawhirimatia (God of weather).

Whakapapa

• Definition: genealogical framework that connects all beings and phenomena into a broader system.

• Understanding whakapapa as more than just lineage, also as a systematic classification of the universe's elements.

Recap: Creation Traditions

• Purpose: To describe how the world came into being.

  • Different creation narratives include:

  • God (Christian tradition)

  • Big Bang (scientific perspective)

  • Rangi and Papa (Māori tradition)

• Relationships Established:

  • Since the world’s creation, humans are to dominate and subdue the earth, highlighting a relationship between humanity and nature.

  • Emphasis on literal kinship: humans and nature are related.

• Existence Types:

  • Differential existence of entities such as physical (material) and spiritual dimensions.

Adam and Eve Narrative

• Creation Account:

  • LORD God forms animals and birds from the earth (Genesis 2:19).

  • Adam names each living creature, signifying human dominion over animals.

  • Mention of the formation of woman from man's rib (Genesis 2:21-22).

  • Quote:

    • "This is now bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called 'woman,' for she was taken out of man."

  • Establishes bond and unity between man and woman.

  • All humans come from Adam and Eve (whakapapa)

• Consequences of Disobedience:

  • Woman's suffering during childbirth (Genesis 3:16).

  • The curse on the ground from disobedience (Genesis 3:17-19).

  • Quote:

    • "Cursed is the ground because of you; through painful toil you will eat food from it all the days of your life."

  • Emphasis on mortality: "for dust you are and to dust you will return."

• Key Themes from Narrative:

  • Human existence and origins.

  • Pain in childbirth and survival toil, as well as the inevitability of death.

  • Gender roles: women are depicted as subordinate to men and are to submit to husbands.

Evolutionary Theory

• Basic Principles:

  • Evolution progresses from simple to complex forms of life.

  • Transition from single-celled organisms to diverse biological entities.

• Proposed Mechanisms:

  • Natural selection

  • Genetic drift

  • Mutation bias

• Key Distinction:

  • The differences between humans and other animals are quantitative, not qualitative.

• Implications of Evolutionary Theory:

  • Explains humanity's origin and our connection to other life forms.

  • Used in the past to rationalize racism and sexism (e.g., Darwin's views on gender disparity).

  • Could argue it is a form of whakapapa

Hine-Ahu-One (Māori Creation Story)

• Narrative:

  • Tane's search for the uha (feminine element) to bring forth humanity.

  • Quote: "The ira tangata cannot be found; who has the semblance of such?"

• Conceptual Divisions:

  • Differences between ira atua (supernatural life) and ira tangata (human essence).

  • Lack of explicit gender roles in the narrative but an underlying theme of balance and complementarity.

Summary of Key Societal Relationships

• Relationships Overview:

  • Between God/gods/the immaterial and humans.

  • Christian perspective: hinges on submission and obedience.

  • Scientific perspective: negates the existence of the immaterial.

  • Between nature and humans.

  • Christian view: dominated and exploited.

  • Scientific view: humans as apex predators yet not special within the vast scheme.

  • Relationships among humans.

  • Notably a hierarchy exists, where boys may be viewed as superior to girls in some thought traditions.

Creation Genealogies of Knowledge

• Evolution of Thought:

  • Reflects stages of thought from unconscious to conscious understanding.

• Māori Knowledge Categories:

  • Te kete-tuauri: Knowledge of ritual and prayer.

  • Te kete-tuatea: Knowledge of harmful elements i.e. harmful to mankind.

  • Te kete-aronui: Knowledge for human benefit.

Symbolism in Māori Culture

• Murirangawhenua:

  • Representation of knowledge acquired from different sources (upper and lower jawbone symbolism).'

    • Upper (Te kauae runga): celestial knowledge, pertaining to the gods

    • Lower (Te kauae raro): terrestial knowledge, history, people

      • She did not give him the upper jawbone (parallels to tree of knowledge)

  • Maui’s grandmother who gifted him her jawbone

• Non-Physical Knowledge Acquisition:

  • Includes insights from dreams, visions, and spiritual perception.

  • Gained through observation of the natural and metaphysical world i.e. astronomy, weather, navigation, plants, minerals, migration, etc

• Cultural Practices:

  • Māori traditions emphasize storytelling and philosophical discourse as means of knowledge transmission.

  • Analogical reasoning?

  • Maori were admired by settlers for their sophisticated philosophical and spiritual beliefs

  • Thinking and knowledge were shared and created through discourse

• Different Approaches:

  • Rationalist: Knowledge through reason.

  • Empiricist: Knowledge through experience.

  • Christian thought: Knowledge through faith (and reason).

  • Scientific thought: Knowledge through observation and experimentation.

  • Māori perspective: Knowledge gained through contemplation, experience, and divine influences.

Maori Worldview and Christianity

• Transition from traditional to post-contact Maori thought after European settlement.

• Adoption of Christianity by Maori:

  • Many Maori converted to Christianity in the 1800s, partially due to the church’s role in education.

  • Until the 1860s, the church was the primary provider of education to Maori.

• Significance of literacy:

  • Maori sought literacy eagerly, recognising it as a new tool for understanding and engagement.

• Bible’s role as a tool for literacy:

  • First book translated into Te Reo Maori.

  • Viewed as a collection of oral traditions in written form, subject to interpretation for contemporary relevance.

• Bible's epistemic potential:

  • Oral traditions inform present actions, similar to the ways Maori engaged with the Bible.

Understanding Colonisation

• Maori did not have frameworks for interpreting colonisation.

• Biblical narratives provided resonances for understanding their experiences:

  • Maori saw parallels between their situation and that of the Israelites in bondage.

  • Acts of resistance and liberation in the Bible informed Maori thought during colonisation.

• Bible contradicted their notion of their not being an absolute truth, but it was still considered and applied to a Maori worldview

Key Biblical Texts and Their Impact

• Significant biblical texts influencing Maori prophetic movements:

  • Book of Exodus:

  • Offers a narrative about liberation from oppression, resonating deeply with the Maori experience.

  • The story of Moses and the Israelites served as an allegory of hope and survival.

• The Book of Revelation:

  • Themes of apocalyptic visions and end times reflected the socio-political anxiety among Maori as European settlement accelerated.

    • Sun becomes black

    • Stars fall to the earth

    • Heaven departs as a scroll

    • Land becomes a wasteland

• Prophets in the Bible, particularly Gabriel and Michael, were also central figures in Maori prophetic thought.

  • Gabriel was a messenger and protecter of God’s chosen people

  • Michael is to lead the war in heaven and his arrival indicates the end times

    • Maori less likely to have a notion of end times

    • existence may have something to do with giving readers hope and reassurance

• Maori used prophets in relation to whakapapa to fight colonisation

Emergence of Maori Prophets

• New types of Maori prophets in the 1860s:

  • PROPHECY: transcendence beyond tribal identities; unification of Maori across iwi based on belief rather than genealogy.

• Focus on Rua Kenana as a leader in this context:

  • Viewed as a spiritual successor to prophet Tekorti.

  • Emphasised independence and self-determination for Maori communities.

  • Founded Maungapohatu as a new settlement embodying these principles.

Rua Kenana and His Prophetic Movement

• The Mihaia

• Claimed to be spiritual successor of Te Kooti

• Emerged from among the Ringatuu

• Follows called themselves Ngaa Iharaira (Israelites)

• Promised return of land and mana to Maori

• Goals and early life of Rua Kenana:

  • Promoted the return of lands and political autonomy.

    • Remove Tuuhoe people completely from European influence

  • His village became a symbol of Maori identity and resistance.

    • Refused to volunteer for WWI

  • Instituted self-governance and indigenous practices at Maungapohatu.

    • Where, in 1906, he established a ‘New Jerusalem’

      • Posed a threat to capitalism because of the communal labour

  • Expansion to a community of about 1,000 people, establishing local infrastructure.

• Significant events under Kenana’s leadership include:

  • Their rejection of settler rule while seeking a negotiated relationship with the government.

  • Arrest and the narrative of defiance against colonial authority.

• Acts of prophetic leadership and symbolic connections to the Bible:

  • Attempted prophecies and reinterpretation of his identity in relation to other leaders, including King Edward.

• Some Maori e.g. Sir Apirana Ngata and Maui Pomare, viewed him as setting Maori back

  • Pakeha saw Rua as disruptive

Independence Efforts

• Applied for a liquor licence (repeatedly rejected)

• Worked with the Crown rather than under

  • Signed over thousands of acres to the government as the Urewera National Park

• Met PM Joseph Ward who he asked for liquor licence

  • Not given verbal response, but glass of whisky, which Rua took as a yes

Intermingling of Maori and Christian Thought

• Kenana’s vision included divine elements:

  • Encounters with angels such as Gabriel and Michael indicated a spiritual connection to the Christian narrative of end-times and healing.

  • The use of biblical symbols and narratives to legitimise Maori aspirations.

• Encounters structured around indigenous concepts of genealogy (whakapapa) and belief systems.

• Integration as a means of resilience against colonisation:

  • Use of Christian imagery to form communal identity and assert agency in a colonial context.

Rua Kenana History

• 1904, Rua allegedly began having visions

  • One of Angel Mikare (Michael) who told him he was to heal people, and Rue decided to heal the people by healing the land

    • Shortly after, Gabriel instructed him and first wife Pinepine te Rika to climb Maungapoohatu

  • The angels who visited and what they represent is quite telling

    • Michael only appears at end times

    • Gabriel appears to prophets

    • Rua would ride a white horse (four horsemen of the apocalypse mentioned in Revelations?)

• Climbing Maungapohatu

  • Met Whaitiri (atua of lightning) led them to the top

    • She assited Taane’s retrieval of 3 kete of knowledge

    • Rua decribes him as Jesus’ sister

      • Potential to align with value of whakapapa or reconcile traditions

      • Also described himself as Jesus’ brother

  • Met Jesus at top who leads them to enormous diamond to redeem his people

    • Invokes Moses on Mt Sinai when receiving Ten Commandmends

      • Both mountain names mean Moutain of Stone

    • Diamond often understood to be more symbolic

      • Or mauri stone (talismans protecting life-force of surrounding forest, garden, or people)

      • Supposedly hidden to protect people of Tuuhoe

  • Descends via rainbow

    • In Christianity, symbolises covenant God made to humans after Flood and promised to never do it again

    • Uenuku is atua associated with rainbows

      • Mortal fell in love with mist maiden and transformed to be with her

      • May be an inversion representing Rua being a heavenly creature and becoming a mortal (similar to Jesus)

• First major prophecy

  • He and Kind Edward would meet in Gisborne in June 25th, 1906

    • Diamond, gold, four million pounds exchanged and land them returned

    • After several anxious days, Rua revealed that he was that king

      • Could argue it was a failed prophecy

      • By bringing people together, he fulfilled Te Kooti’s prophecy that in 14 years a man would arise in the moutains of Urewera and succeed him

        • Thus validating his leadership

          • Bible stories are often written to ensure fulfilment of earlier sayings or deeds (known practice of Judeo-Christian prophets)

            • Earlier passages “are held to contain, possibly in a disguised or deception form, narrative promises that will later be kept, though perhaps in enexpected ways” (Kermode 1979: 106)

              • Perhaps used to validate his fulfilment of Te Kooti’s prophecies

• During WWI, harassed by police for liquor sales, remarked her wished the Germans would win

  • March 1916, invasion of Maungapohatu was planned

  • 70 police sent in 3 groups

  • 2 April 1916, Rua stood unarmed on Marae, accompanied by sons Whatu and Toko

  • Rua waited to greet police, shots fired

  • Toko was wounded and grabbed a gun to fire on police

  • Two Maori were killed, one being Toko

  • Senior officers claimed they walked into an ambush

    • However, Arnold Butterworth believed arrest was illegal and police were guilty of assault, manslaughter, or even murder

      • Nonetheless, charges were thrown out against Rua by Justice Chapman

        • Drew conclusion Rua was “morally” guilty of resisting arrest

        • Sentence of one years hard labour followed by 18 months imprisonment

        • 8 of jury protested sentence and sent a petition to Parliament

        • April 1918, Rua was released and returned, but the community was not the same

          • Community disbanded by 1930s

Significance of Syncretism

• Definition of syncretism:

  • The combination of different beliefs or religions.

• Role of syncretism in Maori resistance:

  • Allowed for expression of agency within new colonial realities while retaining Maori identity.

Week 2: Gender and Sexuality

Focus: Mikaere and Hokowhitu

Maori Women: Caught in the Contradictions of a Colonised Reality by Mikaere

I. Tikanga Mori and the Status of Women

• Maori World View: Built on the principle of balance and whanaungatanga (interrelationship). Both genders were essential to the collective whole.

• Language and Concepts:

  • Gender-neutral pronouns: $ia$ (personal) and $tana/tona$ (possessive).

  • Female-associated concepts: Whare tangata (house of humanity) and whenua (land and afterbirth).

  • Traditional proverbs emphasize the essential nourishing roles of women.

• Female Figures in Mythology:

  • Mahuika: Provided fire to Maui.

  • Muriranga-whenua: Her jawbone allowed Maui to fish up the North Island.

  • Hine-nui-te-po: The ancestress whom Maui succumbs to in his quest for immortality.

  • Papatuanuku: The Earth Mother and ancestress of all Mori.

• Social Freedoms:

  • Women were not property; they kept their names upon marriage.

  • Children identified with both parents' kinship groups.

  • Child-rearing was a collective whanau responsibility, not isolated to a nuclear family.

  • Assault on women was a serious whanau concern, often resulting in severe punishment or death for the perpetrator.

II. English Common Law vs. Maori Tradition

• Origins: Derived from Roman law where the patriarch (paterfamilias) had rights of life and death over the household.

• Legal Status of Women:

  • Women were considered chattels (property) of their fathers or husbands.

  • Married women lacked independent legal personality (incapacitated).

  • Property was vested entirely in the husband upon marriage.

• Historical Legacy in New Zealand:

  • Until $1985$, rape could not be legally perpetrated by a husband against his wife.

  • The law historically trivialized domestic violence as a private matter.

III. The Impact of Colonisation

• Redefinition of Mythology: Missionaries and Pakeha writers reshaped Maori myths into patriarchal structures (e.g., aligning the creation of Hine-ahu-one with the biblical story of Eve).

• The Treaty of Waitangi ($1840$):

  • Settlers perceived only men as leaders and primarily sought male signatories.

  • While once thought to be only $3$ or $4$, at least $13$ women have been identified as signatories.

• Economic and Social Disruption:

  • The Native Land Act ($1865$) aimed to destroy collectivism and individualize land titles.

  • Land loss forced the breakdown of whanau into vulnerable nuclear family units.

  • Church schools (e.g., Hukarere, established $1875$) trained Maori girls for domesticity and subordinate roles.

IV. Adoption and Identity

• Whangai vs. Colonial Adoption:

  • Whangai: Open arrangement where children remain part of the whanau and know their whakapapa.

  • Colonial Adoption: Based on property rights, secrecy (closed adoption), and the stigma of "illegitimacy."

• Legislation:

  • Native Land Act ($1909$): Required legal orders for adoption and prohibited Mori from adopting Pakeha children.

  • Adoption Act ($1955$) and $1962$ Amendment: Enforced closed stranger adoption, removing Maori children from their kin groups.

• Consequences: Stripping of cultural identity and generations of lost taonga (treasures) to the iwi.

V. Contemporary Realities

• Policy and Health:

  • Legislative mentions of the Treaty are often weakly drafted and interpreted by non-Maori.

  • Health and Disability Services Act ($1993$): Maori women's health needs remain largely invisible in the new structures.

• Media Representation:

  • The Piano: Romanticizes the common law tradition of women as property.

  • Once Were Warriors: Illustrates the violent breakdown of the urbanized Mori nuclear family, but offers hope through a return to whanau.

• Feminist Dynamics: Maori women face the dual oppression of patriarchy and colonialism. Alliances with Pakeha feminists are complicated by the latter's refusal to acknowledge colonial privilege.

• Self-Perception: The assumption that Maori leadership is a male domain is a colonial stereotype, not a traditional heritage.

Tackling Mäori Masculinity: A Colonial Genealogy of Savagery and Sport by Hokowhitu

Contextualization of Māori Masculinity

• Historical Overview of Māori Masculinity

  • Nineteenth Century: Māori masculine physicality compared to untamed countryside; seen as something to conquer and civilize.

  • Twentieth Century: Physicality harnessed for manual labor in colonial New Zealand's development.

  • Twenty-First Century: Māori masculinity represented through overachievements in sports; it has become a spectacle.

• Personal Journey of the Author

  • Background: Author grew up in a rural Māori culture in Ōpōtiki, bonding with physicality and sports, especially rugby.

  • Academic Path: Author pursued higher education culminating in degrees in physical education and sport; contrasts with societal views of success.

  • Influences on Masculinity: Growing up, academic achievement was often derided compared to physical prowess, which led to social acceptance.

• Insight into Barriers Faced by Māori Boys

  • Contrast in Experiences: Māori boys encountered barriers to accessing non-physical achievements that Pākehā boys did not face.

  • Turning Point: A significant moment occurred in 1985 when a university careers adviser discouraged pursuing physical education based on racial stereotypes.

  • Stereotype of Māori Men: The adviser assumed the author’s interest in sport was tied to a laziness rather than academic or intellectual potential.

The Role of Sport in Defining Masculinity

• Relationship with Sport

  • Bonding with Father: Sports were a way to connect with the author's Māori father, who viewed sports as essential for achieving mana against Pākehā men.

  • Definition of Masculinity: Influences from the perception of Māori male athletes as staunch, physically tough, and unemotional figures, especially witnessed in rugby.

• Crisis in Teaching

  • Experience as a Teacher: Author returned to teaching at Ōpōtiki College, realizing that Māori boys were largely disengaged from academics, engrossed instead in sports.

  • Admiration for Sports Success: Younger boys idolized senior Māori athletes, reflecting the skewed values placed upon sports over academic pursuits.

Genealogy of Māori Masculinity: The Power of Discourse

• Research Focus

  • Theological Construction of Māori: Examination of how the societal framing of Māori men has historically led to perceptions of them as inherently physical.

  • Foucault’s Power/Knowledge Nexus: Discussion on how the dominant discourse creates a reality that subjects Māori men to traditional stereotypes.

  • Connection to Colonialism: Reference to Edward Said’s notion that colonialism forms knowledge and reality which limits indigenous identities.

• Deconstructing Dominant Discourses

  • Aim of Analysis: To challenge the historical racist notions that stereotype Māori masculinity in physical terms, exploring the roots of these beliefs.

  • Role of Education: Analysis of how state education perpetuated stereotypes by channeling Māori men into manual labor, emphasizing physicality over intellectuality.

Representation of Māori Men in Media and Literature

• Cinematic Illustrations

  • Mainstream Experiences of Māori Men: Examples of films like Utu and Once Were Warriors presenting violence as intrinsic to Māori masculinity.

  • The Stereotype of the Physical Savage: Representation of Māori men in film depicting them as violent and savage, with instances of brutality shaping the narrative.

• Cultural Undercurrents

  • Historical Events: Reference to events in Ōpōtiki, including the 1865 killing of missionary Carl Volkner, illustrating the complexity of Māori responses to colonization.

  • Impact of Media: Examining how these violent stereotypes serve to justify colonial narratives and perpetuate the idea of savagery within Māori masculinity.

Historical Roots of Māori Masculinity

• Construction of Masculinity Through Cultural Practices

  • Social Codes of Behavior: Understanding that masculinity is socially constructed rather than inherently biological.

  • Nineteenth-Century Perceptions: A shift towards seeing Māori as 'savages' required justification for colonization; creation of stereotypes defined Māori men primarily as physical beings.

  • Legacy of Colonialism: The colonial discourse that positioned Pākehā as civilized and Māori as physically aggressive shaped educational and social policies toward Māori.

• Educational Pathways and Limitation

  • Educational Policies: Discussion on state education policies focusing on manual skills and limiting Māori boys’ academic education to agricultural work and trades.

  • Rhetoric of Māori Education: Senior educators’ views suggested a natural inclination toward manual work over intellectual pursuits for Māori boys, reinforcing stereotypes.

Māori Athletes: The Natural Sportsman Stereotype

• Enlightenment Ideals and the Noble Savage

  • Romantic Ideas of Māori: Enlightenment views of the noble savagery idealized Māori as athletes, viewing them as existing harmoniously with nature.

  • Modern Sports Success as Cultural Commentary: Discussion on how Māori success in sports reflects and distorts the past colonial narratives and reinforces contemporary stereotypes.

• Perceptions of Māori Athletes

  • Evolutionary Arguments: Arguments that frame Māori sportsmen as less evolved creatures, linking physical prowess to animalistic traits.

  • Media Representation: How media portrays Māori athletes as capable due to physical attributes while undermining their achievements as lacking intellectual rigor.

Systemic Channels through Sport

• Education Systems and Māori Aspirations

  • Channeling into Sports: Analysis of how educational frameworks and sports academies guide Māori boys towards athletic success over academic achievements.

  • Societal Expectations: Societal and educational emphasis on sports as an aspiration for Māori boys, reflecting broader systemic inequalities in educational opportunities.

• Mass Market Representation

  • Spectacle of Māori Athletes: The commercialization of Māori masculinity through sports images reinforces traditional stereotypes and diverges from deeper cultural understanding.

Moving Beyond Dominant Constructs

• Conclusion: Embracing Broader Representations

  • Progress and Resistance: Notable examples of Māori men challenging stereotypes through various forms of media and education reflect a move away from reductive portrayals.

  • Future Directions: Importance of recognizing the diverse expressions of Māori masculinity beyond traditional constructs, empowered through cultural education and intelligentsia awareness.

• Final Thoughts

  • Need for Recognizing Diverse Identities: Publish a variety of positive Māoric male role models in mainstream media to counter stereotypes, allowing for a wider recount of Māori male identity that includes intellect, creativity, spirituality, and love beyond the physical.

Week 3: Aesthetics

Focus: Suzi Wereta

Engaging with Māori Art and Identity: A Conversation with Māori Artists in Otepoti by Wereta

Abstract

• Literature addressing Māori artists often situated within Western frameworks.

• Māori epistemology and artistic integrity marginalized.

• Cultural subjugation initiated comparative discourse to Classical European art.

• Research explores Māori artists' experiences in Otepoti, contrasting literature with artist narratives.

• Emergence of strong cultural history & tradition leading to a contemporary assertion of Iwi identity.

• Keywords: art, identity, Kai Tahu art, Māori artists, southern artists.

Background

• Literature around Māori artists exists in two discourses affected by competing worldviews.

• Importance of acknowledging personal context in literature analysis; failing to do so can lead to reactive misrepresentation.

• Indigenous writers contribute to the master narrative when their intent is truth-seeking (Panoho, 1995).

• Distinction between discourses determined by narrator and body of knowledge.

Competing Discourses

• Coloniser vs. colonised narratives.

• Narratives entwined with authority or resistance themes; lack substantive future directions.

• Central purpose: exploration of five Māori artists in Otepoti; cultural, identity, and representation interlinked within colonial and neo-colonial contexts.

• Culture and identity regarded as dynamic, influenced by history and future representations.

• Need for access to knowledge reflecting colonial interactions.

Introduction

• Māori art encompasses diverse meanings, influenced by Western paradigms.

• Modernist era introduced Western epistemology to Aotearoa.

• Introduction of new materials aided Māori art styles; however, driven by imperialism's goals.

• Colonialism granted intellectual and political control, branding Indigenous knowledge systems as inferior.

• Orientalism (Said, 1993) highlighted the construction of other cultures to maintain superiority.

• Indigenous peoples classified as primitive through scientific inquiry, creating an ecosystem of untruths.

• Comparison positioned Māori within a primitive mode of existence due to anthropological perspectives.

Enlightenment

• Immanuel Kant (1996) defined Enlightenment as the emergence from self-incurred immaturity.

• Western paradigms assert Indigenous knowledge as outdated due to inability to explain traditional concepts.

• Intellectual paternalism targeted Indigenous culture/knowledge from colonial perspectives.

Research Methodology

• Qualitative approach informed by Kaupapa Māori perspective.

• Aimed to reflect participants' mana and Indigenous knowledge.

• Acknowledges marginalized Indigenous epistemologies; promotes the creation of new knowledge systems.

• Kaupapa Māori research reasserts Māori identity, encouraged sharing of personal and collective truth (Bishop, 1998; Eketone, 2004).

Participant Recruitment

• Sample consisted of 5 Māori artists, predominately female.

• Participants resided in Otepoti and actively engaged in their art forms.

• Engagement with local Rūnanga crucial for legitimacy.

• Transparency on rights, roles, and responsibilities throughout the research project.

Interview Process

• Conducted face-to-face interviews (kanohi ki te kanohi) with predetermined open-ended questions (Table 1).

• Questions centered on artists’ backgrounds, influences, challenges, identity, and views on traditional/contemporary art.

Findings and Themes

• Literature on Māori artists limited; however, coherent themes emerged from literature that paralleled participant experiences.

• Participants articulated a clear identity as Māori, asserting uniqueness in their artistic expressions unbound from Western comparisons.

• Major findings organized into four themes:

  • Competing Discourses

  • Resistance

  • Reclamation

  • Appropriation

Competing Discourses

• Dominance of Western framework in literature leading to potential misinterpretations.

• Participants resist comparing their work to Western art styles, viewing their practices through their own lenses.

• Gender and conservation practices reflect effects of colonial assumptions and limitations imposed on artist choices.

Gender Discourses

• Participants expressed experiences of gendered constraints reflective of colonization.

• Hine’s narrative illustrates familial influences reinforcing gender limitations in art.

• Kelly noted the challenges faced in predominantly male work environments but highlighted the support from Māori female role models.

Conservation Practices

• Artists addressed conflicts arising from regulations around natural resource use affecting their artistic practices.

• Lisa criticized conservation policies hindering traditional practices, while James highlighted limitations caused by legislative restrictions.

Artist Kawa

• Negotiation of personal kawa within a Western-dominated education setting, enabling artists to navigate cultural expectations.

• Lisa's navigation reflects respect within differing traditions while adapting to her current location.

Resistance

• Passionate assertion of Māori artists to transcend stereotypes imposed by literature as primitive.

• Participants challenge traditional notions, asserting that contemporary practice is a natural evolution of Māori artistry.

Authenticity Discussions

• Paulette faced skepticism regarding her Māori identity based on pigmentation.

• Artists assert that tradition and contemporary practice coexist; the contemporary stems from traditional foundations.

Reclamation

• Artists reclaim the depiction of their practices and identities through art, interpreting and adapting traditional themes to reflect personal and cultural narratives.

• Importance of transmitting cultural identity through artistic expressions informs collective knowledge transfer.

Appropriation

• Concept of appropriation examined, addressing both traditional and contemporary dimensions within the artists' work.

• Participants expressed resistance to appropriation through negotiating their kawa and maintaining art integrity.

• Kelly highlighted personal efforts to control the resulting representation of their narratives in media.

Conclusion

• Research reveals a disconnection between the literature and the lived realities of contemporary Māori artists.

• Shift in discourse represents a movement away from a primitive identity towards a robust assertion of art as a medium for cultural identity.

• Further development of literature is necessary to acknowledge Māori artists' contributions and promote awareness at local, national, and international levels.