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Types of EthicsV
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies how humans ought to live and is distinct from morality, which relates to personal or societal rules of right and wrong. The three main branches are normative ethics (prescribing standards for action), meta-ethics (investigating the meaning and status of ethical terms), and applied ethics (using ethical theories to resolve real-world issues).
Metaethics: What is Metaethics?
Metaethics asks what morality itself is—whether moral properties exist and how we can know them. It contrasts moral realism (objective moral facts exist) with anti-realism (no objective moral facts). It also distinguishes moral absolutism (universal, unchanging standards) from relativism (morality varies by culture or person).
A Quick Primer: Normative, Meta, & Applied Ethics
Normative ethics establishes standards for how to act. Meta-ethics asks foundational questions about the meaning of “right” and “wrong.” Applied ethics uses those standards and meanings to judge concrete cases.
Moral Relativism vs Moral Subjectivism
Relativism says morality is not universal; it differs across cultures or individuals. Subjectivism holds that morality depends on individual mental states—beliefs or desires.
Philosophy, Ethics, and Morality
Philosophy is the systematic study of beliefs and principles. Ethics is the branch of philosophy focused on how one thought to live and on right versus wrong conduct. Morality refers to personal principles guiding life. Ethics often covers professional codes; morality is more personal. In this context, the two terms are often interchangeable.
Importance of Ethics
Ethics provides guidelines for daily choices and professional codes, helps analyze complex issues, supports fair rules and compromise, and involves systematizing and defending concepts of right and wrong.
Major Areas of Ethical Study
Meta-Ethics: Meaning of moral terms and the nature of ethical properties and judgments; questions like how we know what is good or bad and what “right” means.
Normative Ethics: Establishes standards of conduct and answers what the right thing to do is; concerns moral duties and obligations.
Applied Ethics: Applies moral principles in real-life contexts (bioethics, environmental ethics, business ethics, development ethics); analyzes specific moral judgments.
Ethical Perspectives
Ethical Relativism vs. Ethical Objectivism.
Ethical Relativism: Morality varies by culture or individual; no universal truths.
Ethical Objectivism: There are universal moral truths that apply to all people; examples of theories include Deontology (duty-based ethics), Utilitarianism (greatest good), and Natural Law Theory (morality grounded in human nature and reason).
Origin of Moral Philosophy (Lesson 2)
Ethics began as systematic reflection on the best way to live. Early societies had moral codes, often tied to religion and myths.
Mythical Accounts of Morality
Code of Hammurabi (Babylonia, c. 1750 BCE): Laws presented with divine authority.
Ten Commandments (Moses, 14th–13th c. BCE): Moral laws given at Mt. Sinai.
Plato’s Protagoras: Moral sense and justice framed as aiding survival.
Morality and Religion
Divine Origin Theory claims morality requires religion.
Euthyphro Question: Is something good because God commands it, or does God command it because it is good?
If morality is only what God commands, morality can be arbitrary; if God commands because it is good, there are standards independent of God. Divine Command Theory faces several issues and is not sufficient on its own.
Prehuman Ethics and Evolutionary Roots
Non-human animals show altruism, suggesting morality may have evolutionary roots for group survival.
Kin Selection: parental and kin obligations support genetic survival and extend to broader family.
Reciprocity: helping with expectation of help back; punishment of cheaters contributes to early notions of justice.
Cultural and Anthropological Perspectives
Cultures promote loyalty, curb selfishness, and honor self-sacrifice; moral diversity exists across societies.
Anthropological studies reveal differences in killing, property, sexual norms, and more, but some universal elements (kinship, reciprocity, limits on killing) appear across cultures.
Is Morality Objective or Subjective?
Moral Relativism: morality is cultural or personal and not universal.
Moral Objectivism: there are standards that exist beyond culture and opinion.
Philosophical challenge: universal agreement does not prove objectivity; diversity does not disprove it either. The central question remains unresolved.
Significance of Studying Moral Philosophy
Studying ethics helps define identity and culture, improve relationships through respect and cooperation, promote rational self-interest via trust, and enhance critical thinking about traditions and biases.
Lesson 3: Focus of Ethics
Ethics analyzes human actions and evaluates them morally; law focuses on acts but ethics goes beyond legality to assess morality. Only deliberate actions are subject to ethical evaluation; involuntary actions are not.
Actus Humanus vs Actus Hominis
Actus Humanus (Human Acts): Deliberate, voluntary actions done with knowledge; subject to ethics.
Actus Hominis (Acts of Man): Actions done without deliberation or full awareness; not subject to ethics.
Example
Choosing to lie or tell the truth (Actus Humanus) vs. reflex actions like sneezing (Actus Hominis).
Requirements of Human Acts (Aquinas)
Knowledge – awareness of what is being done and its consequences.
Voluntariness – the act must proceed from the will.
Freedom – the act must be done freely, without coercion.
If any element is missing, the act is not fully human and cannot be judged morally.
Modifiers / Impediments of Human Acts
Ignorance – lack of knowledge one ought to have; types:
Ignorance of Law: unaware a law exists.
Ignorance of Fact: knows the law but is unaware of circumstances.
Invincible Ignorance: cannot be overcome despite reasonable effort; destroys voluntariness and moral accountability.
Vincible Ignorance: could have been avoided with reasonable effort; lessens voluntariness but does not remove accountability.
Passion (Emotions/Appetites) – powerful emotions that can precede or be deliberately aroused; can lessen or increase voluntariness.
Fear – mental disturbance caused by danger; Grave Fear may lessen or destroy voluntariness; Light Fear affects it slightly.
Violence – external force; full resistance destroys voluntariness; partial resistance reduces voluntariness.
Habit – repeated actions form virtues or vices; can reduce advertence but not remove voluntariness unless unintentional.
Temperament – natural tendencies; may lessen voluntariness but not remove accountability.
Pathological States – mental/physiological disorders (insanity, dementia, sleepwalking, intoxication); if reason and knowledge are absent, act is Actus Hominis and not morally judged.
The Seven-Step Moral Reasoning Framework (Michael Josephson’s Making Ethical Decisions)
Stop and Think – pause before acting to avoid rash decisions.
Clarify Goals – identify short-term and long-term objectives.
Determine Facts – gather accurate information.
Develop Options – list possible actions; consult others if necessary.
Consider Consequences – assess options using the Six Pillars of Character: Trustworthiness, Respect, Responsibility, Fairness, Caring, Citizenship; evaluate stakeholder impact.
Choose – select the option aligned with your values; use role-model thinking: what would the most ethical person do?
Monitor and Modify – review outcomes and adjust if needed.
Extra Pointers
Deontologists
use criteria to arrive at the notion of a human action
Teleologists
reflect on the merits of a particular action.
Human Acts
Require knowledge, voluntariness, and freedom
Actus Humanus
Deliberate actions → subject to moral evaluation
Actus Hominis
Involuntary actions → not judged morally
Impediments
Ignorance, passion, fear, violence, habit, temperament, pathological states
Glossary of Ethical Terms
Meta-ethics: A branch of ethics that examines the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments.
Non-maleficence: An ethical principle that emphasizes avoiding harm to others.
Reliance on divine revelation for moral knowledge: This describes the problem that arises from a lack of universally agreed-upon methods for authenticating and interpreting divine revelations, leading to conflicting moral interpretations.
Beneficence: The ethical principle that emphasizes doing good and acting in the best interest of others.
Divine Command: The philosophical problem concerning the divine origin of morality that Plato raises in his Euthyphro.
Applied ethics: This area of ethics deals with the philosophical examination of specific moral issues, such as bioethics or business ethics.
Normative ethics: The area of ethical study that focuses on determining what actions are morally right or wrong.
Kin selection: A mechanism where altruistic behavior is favored because it benefits relatives who share similar genes.
The Code of Hammurabi: An early moral code.
Altruism: A term that describes seemingly selfless behavior that benefits others at a cost to oneself.
Anthropology: The term for the study of human societies and their cultures.
Theism: The belief in the existence of God or gods.
Tautology: This is implicitly used in the text's critique of defining God's goodness without an independent standard.
Natural selection: The process where organisms better adapted to their environment survive and reproduce more.
Reciprocity: The term for the type of altruism that involves mutual exchange of benefits, or a system of mutual exchange of favors where altruistic acts are performed with the expectation of future benefits.
Moral universalism: The belief in the existence of moral principles applicable to all people, irrespective of cultural background.
Naturalistic fallacy: A philosophical error committed when one attempts to derive moral conclusions solely from factual observations.
Stakeholders: Individuals or groups affected by a decision.
Rash decision: A decision made hastily without sufficient thought.
Monitoring and modifying: Evaluating consequences and making adjustments as needed.
Moral relativism: The belief that morality is relative to a specific culture or society.
Meta-ethics: A branch of ethics that examines the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments.
Non-maleficence: An ethical principle that emphasizes avoiding harm to others.
Reliance on divine revelation for moral knowledge: This describes the problem that arises from a lack of universally agreed-upon methods for authenticating and interpreting divine revelations, leading to conflicting moral interpretations.
Beneficence: The ethical principle that emphasizes doing good and acting in the best interest of others.
Divine Command: The philosophical problem concerning the divine origin of morality that Plato raises in his Euthyphro.
Applied ethics: This area of ethics deals with the philosophical examination of specific moral issues, such as bioethics or business ethics.
Normative ethics: The area of ethical study that focuses on determining what actions are morally right or wrong.
Kin selection: A mechanism where altruistic behavior is favored because it benefits relatives who share similar genes.
The Code of Hammurabi: An early moral code.
Altruism: A term that describes seemingly selfless behavior that benefits others at a cost to oneself.
Anthropology: The term for the study of human societies and their cultures.
Theism: The belief in the existence of God or gods.
Tautology: This is implicitly used in the text's critique of defining God's goodness without an independent standard.
Natural selection: The process where organisms better adapted to their environment survive and reproduce more.
Reciprocity: The term for the type of altruism that involves mutual exchange of benefits, or a system of mutual exchange of favors where altruistic acts are performed with the expectation of future benefits.
Moral universalism: The belief in the existence of moral principles applicable to all people, irrespective of cultural background.
Naturalistic fallacy: A philosophical error committed when one attempts to derive moral conclusions solely from factual observations.
Stakeholders: Individuals or groups affected by a decision.
Rash decision: A decision made hastily without sufficient thought.
Monitoring and modifying: Evaluating consequences and making adjustments as needed.
Moral relativism: The belief that morality is relative to a specific culture or society.
True or False: A Reviewer on Ethics
The Code of Hammurabi is presented as a myth explaining the origin of morality. False. The Code of Hammurabi is an early historical moral code, not a myth.
Religious teachings always provide a sufficient reason for moral behavior.
False. The Euthyphro Question challenges this idea by asking whether an action is moral because God commands it or if God commands it because it is inherently moral.
Historical records alone can fully explain the origins of human morality.
False. Morality also has biological and evolutionary roots, such as altruism and reciprocity.
Anthropology is considered a highly effective method for understanding the origins of human morality.
False. While anthropology reveals cultural diversity, it doesn't fully explain the biological and evolutionary roots of morality.
All social animals exhibit altruistic behavior.
False. The notes state that "many" social animals show this behavior, not all.
Natural selection completely accounts for all instances of altruistic behavior in animals.
False. More specific mechanisms like kin selection and reciprocity also explain altruism.
The legal system's primary focus is identical to ethics' primary focus regarding human actions.
False. Ethics goes beyond what is legal, as an action can be legal but unethical.
Grave fear always renders an action non-human while violence to be an action non-human, it depends on the amount of resistance offered against the violence.
False. Grave fear may lessen voluntariness, but it doesn't always make an act "non-human" (actus hominis).
The Golden Rule is not only applicable in simple, straightforward interpersonal situations.
True. Its principles can be applied to complex ethical frameworks and broader societal issues.
Monitoring the consequences of a decision is only necessary if the initial results are negative.
False. Monitoring is a crucial and continuous step in the ethical framework, regardless of the initial outcome.
Simple moral rules always suffice in complex situations.
False. Complex issues require deeper theoretical frameworks for analysis.
Most people use sophisticated ethical frameworks to guide their daily survival.
False. Most people rely on simple "rules of thumb" for daily decisions.
Philosopher X organized a dialogue with the state leaders to discover the reason of their stone to death policy; such act is fundamental to philosophical study.
True. Questioning and seeking reasons are core to philosophical inquiry.
One night Alexis became a sleepwalker and committed a crime during sleep, his morally blameless depends on the level of knowledge and voluntariness present during the act.
True. Since the act lacked knowledge and voluntariness, it is an actus hominis (act of man) and not morally blameworthy.
Kinship is a less significant factor in human morality than reciprocity.
False. Both are presented as equally important evolutionary roots of morality.