State Policy on Families and Households

Theoretical Perspectives

  • Ideological concerns over use of social policy to control population and reinforce inequalities in society.- feminism and Marxism

Functionalism

  • Functionalists such as Parsons, advocated reinforcing the nuclear family through social policies, such as tax incentives for married people.

  • However, functionalists also suggest limited state involvement in the running of the family- this is not necessary if society is functioning correctly- only want to be involved if there is dysfunction in the family.

  • Traditional values are in opposition to some of the more progressive policies of recent years- such as same sex marriage.

Marxism

  • Critical of the role of the state in creating social policy, suggesting that they are designed to serve the needs of the elites in society- e.g. childcare policies will enable more people to work, serving the ruling class.

  • Policies that are seen to serve the working class are in fact a smoke screen to ensure that the economy continues to function and the people are working.

  • State can effectively “police the family” according to Donzelot, by intervening where they believe that the family is not socialising children correctly.

  • State policy is based upon ruling class ideologies and those that do not conform face sanctions from warning or fines to protective services.

Feminism

  • Radical feminists see the state reinforces patriarchal control through introducing policies that are aimed at women in the role of primary carer- e.g. child benefit paid to mother initially.

  • Liberal feminists, however would suggest that state policy can be used to change the role of women in society- e.g. Equal Pay Act, Divorce Reform and legislation of abortion. However, divisions in the home and workplace remain.

  • State policy has helped women in need when leaving violent partners and provided support through benefits to tackle child poverty.

Conservative Family Policies 1979-1997

  • the Child Support Agency 1993- established to ensure absent fathers paid maintenance for the upbringing of their children (this included chasing down fathers where there was no longer contact etc).

  • Section 28- the government introduced a rule, in 1988, that prevented local government and schools from “promoting” homosexuality and included the provision that schools could not teach “the acceptability of homosexuality as a pretended family relationship.

  • back to Basics- As prime minister, John Major and Redwood, urged a “back to basics” approach, which he put forward as traditional family values.

New Labour family policies 1997-2010

  • Targeted those most in need and addressed inequality in society.

  • Working family and child tax credits to help families back into work.

  • Paid Paternity leave.

  • Civil Partnership Act (2005)- Allows same sex couple to be legally seen as a couple.

  • Adoption and Children’s Act (2002)

  • Equal age of consent for same sax relationships.

  • Repeal of Section 28 (2003)

  • Sure Start and Education Maintenance Allowance.

Coalition Policies 2010-2015

  • Shared parental leave- partner could split the maternity leave allowance between themselves to help bond with child and allow women to go back to work earlier.

  • Same sex marriage (2013)- partners of same sex could marry- however this was only passed with cross-party support from Labour party.

  • Crime and education policies targeted parents in anti-social behaviours or withdrawing students from school during term time.

  • Austerity policies, such as benefits caps, 2 child limit for benefits and bedroom tax, impacted on low-wage and lone- parent families. ”We’re all in this together”.

Conservative policies 2015 onwards

  • Universal Credit- paid to one member of family to replace other forms of benefit.

  • Closure of Sure Start centres (from 2010 but expanded post-2015) left children and families vulnerable.

  • Freeze on working-age benefits, further cuts to benefits cap to £25,000 per annum.

Impacts of Policy on Family Structures

  • Types of Policies-

  • Direct policies- policies that promote or reject certain household structures- e.g. Tax allowances for married couples.

  • Indirect policies- policies that may not have intended to impact on household structures but once implemented had an impact e.g. Equal Pay Act

Increased cohabitation and delayed marriage

  • Career aspirations of women mean that marriage is delayed as women are focused upon their careers-Sharpe.

  • Availability of contraception and legalisation of abortion means couples can delay having children.

  • Greater geographical movement means people often work apart or decide to travel before settling down.

Increased Divorce

  • Divorce reform has led to increase in breakdown of family unit leading to more lone- parent families, lone person households and more reconstituted families.

  • Creation of welfare state meant resident parents could get greater financial support from the state for looking after children- e.g. single parent benefits, child tax credits- this support has been scaled back due to Coalition and Conservative austerity policies.

Same-sex families

  • Decriminalisation of homosexuality (1980s), introduction of civil partnerships (2005) and same- sex marriage (2013) have changed family structures.

  • Changes to legislation to adoption and IVF treatments have led to an increase in same- sex families.

More lone-parent families

  • Welfare state provides protections for lone- parent families- this has led to accusations of “welfare dependency”- New Right.

  • Availability of IVF treatment and lone- parent adoption means women can choose to parent alone.

  • Creation of Child Support Agency to chase down non- resident parents.

Impacts of Policy on Gender Roles

Maternity and paternity leave.

  • 9 months paid maternity leave (12 months total) reinforces the traditional role of the female as the primary care giver, seen by feminists.

  • introduction of shared paternity leave acknowledges the role of the father in a child’s life and allows parents to split parental leave. Dual impact on both father and mother.

  • Both partners can have up to 13 weeks off in the first 5 years of their child’s life for caring responsibilities- emphasis in shared responsibility.

Increased divorce and negotiated family.

  • Shift of power from men to be more equal.

  • Ease of divorce can have indirect impacts on the gender relationships between partners- insecure nature of family life but led to negotiated gender roles.

  • Gender roles need to be more equal within negotiated family so men more likely to be involved in domestic labour and childcare.

  • Women are also expected to pursue a career to contribute to family income- more equal footing with men.

Availability of childcare.

  • Opportunities such as 30 hours free childcare for children over 3 and working tax credits to help pay for after-school and breakfast clubs removes social expectation of women to stop working.

  • Men involved in picking up and dropping off of children to childcare settings.

  • Sure Start centres provided Dad and Baby clubs to help men bond more with their children.

Increased career opportunities.

  • Gender roles have become more equal as a result of women’s employment- a result of changes to employment laws such as Equal Pay Act and Sex Discrimination Act.

  • Equality Act states that people cannot be discriminated against on grounds of family, pregnancy or gender- allowing women to have higher career aspirations.

Impacts of Policy on Childhood

  • Austerity policies were intended to repay national debt but have disproportionately impacted on children- 4 million in poverty.

Children dependent on adults for longer.

  • Brookes- “cotton ball society”.

  • Cuts to student grants and introduction of tuition fees- more students going to local universities and staying at home.

  • Changes to employment laws- more insecure- creation of zero- hour contracts and temporary contracts- increased the volume of boomerang kids- return home as they cannot afford mortgages or rent.

  • Extension to compulsory schooling- children require adult financial support for longer.

Childhood is disappearing.

  • Palmer- Toxic childhood.

  • Impact of educational policy on children’s mental health- SATs at 7 and 11 and the pressure to go into higher education.

  • Impact of austerity on working families and lone- person families- caps on benefits, shortages of food and bad accommodation.

  • Increase in the number of child carers and the lack of support in social care.

  • Increased conflict due to family beak- ups- divorce reform and child support agency.

Society has become more child- centred.

  • Children’s Act- promoted the rights of children.

  • Contraception and abortion- reducing the number of unwanted pregnancies for family that cannot afford or wish for children.

  • Indirect policy- Reduction in number of children- policies that have promoted equality in the workplace and compulsory education which has made children economic burdens.

  • Marketisation of education- importance of parental involvement in education for children to get ahead. “Helicopter parenting”.

Different experiences of childhood.

  • Migration policies- impacted in families with unable to live together with minority ethnic group backgrounds.

  • Social class- working class children and lone- parent families disadvantaged by austerity policies, such as universal credit, bedroom tax and cuts to child tax credits and free school meals.

  • Gender- privatisation policies have impacted on the future career prospects for men in traditionally masculine jobs.

  • Different family types- changes to legislation mean that children may have 2 parents of the same sex.