Adams Presidency, Foreign Policy, and Republican-Federalist Conflict
Adams Presidency: Foreign Policy and the Republican-Federalist Conflict
Readings for the Class
Reading the American Past, chapters 9- 9.1 (Hamilton, Report on Manufactures) and 9.5 (Washington, Farewell Address) were discussed in the previous class.
9.2: Mary Dewees Moves West to Kentucky
9.3: Flatboat on the Ohio River
9.4: Judith Sargent Murray: Equality of the Sexes
Comparative Questions from Chapter 9
How did experiences of Dewees compare with Murray’s ideas about equality?
How might Hamilton and Washington have explained the difference between the idea of liberty and how it was put into practice in post-revolutionary America?
Were the flatboats an example of the kind of manufacturing that Hamilton wanted to encourage?
Did Washington believe that the “right of the people to make and alter their Constitutions of Government” extended to people like Murray and Dewees?
Why were Hamilton and Washington optimistic about the future of the nation? To what extent did Murray, Dewees, and the people on the flatboat share that optimism?
Each document in this chapter envisions liberty as a precious source of power. To what extent did the documents agree about the uses and abuses of liberty’s power? What threats to liberty seemed to loom on the horizon, and how might those threats have been avoided?
International Revolutions and the Federalist-Democratic Republican Conflict
French Revolution, 1789
The French Revolution, commencing in 1789, was perceived as a more radical upheaval compared to the American Revolution. Key aspects included:
Guillotine: widespread use of the guillotine for executions.
Abolition of Slavery: efforts to abolish slavery in French territories.
Rights of Man: declaration of the rights of man and citizen.
Status of women: debates and discussions regarding the role and rights of women.
Impact of the French Revolution on Federalist-Republican Conflict
Federalists:
Claimed that Republicans aimed to replicate the French Revolution domestically,
Accused Republicans of supporting radical societal changes.
Republicans:
Claimed that Federalists were influenced by the British,
Referred to Federalists as "monocrats," implying support for a monarchy.
Haitian Revolution
Commerce
Saint-Domingue (Haiti) was economically significant:
Accounted for 40% of France’s foreign trade in 1789.
Received approximately 15% of U.S. exports.
Background
Saint-Domingue in the 18th Century:
Largest sugar producer globally.
Population distribution:
About half a million slaves.
About 25,000 whites.
25,000 free people of color.
Free People of Color: Limited Rights
Rights and discriminations:
Owned property, including slaves.
Faced discriminations (de jure) related to:
Dress
Titles
Segregation
Political office
Restrictions on professions
Suffrage
Impact of French Revolution & Rights of Man on Saint Dominique Elites
Reactions to the French Revolution:
Gran blancs: Desired greater autonomy for the colony from France, particularly in international commerce.
Petite blancs: Sought equality among whites.
Gens de couleur: Advocated for the elimination of racial discrimination.
None of these groups supported the abolition of slavery.
Free People of Color & French Revolution
Sought equality:
Appealed to the French Assembly for equal rights.
The assembly mistakenly granted citizenship to children of free people of color.
War Between Elites
Conflict:
A mini-civil war erupted between free people of color and whites.
Whites initially gained the upper hand.
Slave Revolt
1791 revolt:
Slaves revolted in Saint-Domingue.
France responded by granting citizenship to free people of color.
European powers, including Spain and Britain, intervened.
Shifting Alliances
Toussaint Louverture:
Initially allied with the Spanish in exchange for freedom for his troops.
In 1794, after France abolished slavery, Toussaint joined the French Republican cause, fearing Spain's commitment to maintaining slavery.
British Attempt
British objectives:
Attempted to control Saint-Domingue.
Sought to maintain slavery.
Believed that support from free people of color could secure Haiti while preserving slavery in Jamaica.
British Failure
Reasons for failure:
The British maintained racial discrimination against free people of color.
Free people of color, though distinct from slaves, were still affected by the racial hierarchy.
Heavy troop losses led to British withdrawal.
Napoleon’s Goal
Imperial ambitions:
Napoleon aimed to regain control of the island and reinstate slavery.
Retaking the island was integral to Napoleon’s broader imperial strategy, complementing Louisiana.
He deployed tens of thousands of troops to suppress the rebellion led by Toussaint.
Abolition of Slavery
Actions by Toussaint:
Declared the abolition of slavery.
Eliminated the color line.
Promoted racial equality.
Haitian Independence (1804)
Resistance and factors:
By 1802, France reinstated slavery and racial discrimination in Guadeloupe, leading to resistance from enslaved and free blacks.
Disease, such as yellow fever and malaria, decimated French troops.
A British naval blockade further weakened the French position.
Haiti achieved independence in 1804.
Uniqueness of Haitian Revolution
Historical significance:
Only instance in the Western Hemisphere where slaves were the primary force for independence.
Only case where slavery was completely abolished upon declaration of independence.
Haitian Revolution and the USA
U.S. response:
American abolitionists urged Washington to support Haiti.
Washington, concerned about the impact on American slavery, did not offer support, instead providing aid to French planters.
Adams later supported Haiti to counter Napoleon’s France.
Post-Independence Economy
Economic challenges:
Failure in sugar production and land redistribution.
Attempts to maintain the sugar plantation system via coerced labor met resistance.
Land was eventually redistributed, leading to a new social divide based on education levels.
Haiti Evolves
Economic shift:
Transition from sugar to coffee production.
Smallholders became dependent on international merchants who controlled coffee exports and industrial imports.
Symbol Used By Pro-Slavery Interests
Negative depictions:
The 1805 massacre of remaining whites by Jean-Jacques Dessalines was depicted as barbarism.
Haiti was portrayed as militarized due to fears of renewed French invasion.
These negative portrayals bolstered support for pro-slavery arguments.
Inspiration for Abolition
Influence:
Slave rebellions in Cuba and Brazil were inspired by the Haitian Revolution.
Bolivar’s visit to Haiti in 1815-16 resulted in Haitian support for his campaign, contingent on promising abolition in Gran Colombia.
Symbol Haiti Used by Pro-Slavery Interests in the U.S.
U.S. depictions of independent Haiti:
Barbarism (butchering whites)
Militarized state
Pro-slavery USA forces:
These failures bring support to pro-slavery forces in the USA.
Also bring support to ending the slave trade in the USA (1808): too many slaves were dangerous.
Symbol Haiti Used by U.S. Abolitionists
Anti-slavery USA forces:
Haiti a symbol of freedom for David Walker & Frederick Douglass.
France and England Resume War (1793): Impact on the U.S.
U.S. neutrality:
The U.S. declared neutrality and engaged in trade with both France and England.
Britain interfered with U.S. commercial vessels trading with France.
British forces impressed American sailors into the British navy.
Negotiations between Britain and US: Jay Treaty (1795)
Issues on the Table:
Issues addressed:
Remaining British troops in the U.S. Northwest.
U.S. trade with the British West Indies.
British interception of U.S. cargoes.
British impressment of Americans into the British Navy.
Reimbursement for slaves freed by the British during the Revolution.
End Results of Jay Treaty
Outcomes:
Removal of British troops (delayed by 18 months).
Limited U.S. trade gains in the West Indies.
Britain received most-favored-nation trade status from the U.S.
The U.S. did not receive reciprocal status from Britain.
No resolution on impressed sailors, seized cargoes, or reimbursement for slaves.
Reactions to Jay Treaty
Criticisms:
Seen as pro-British, leading to public resentment and protests.
Slave owners demanded reparations for freed slaves.
Southerners were burdened with repaying Revolutionary War-era debts to British firms.
Republicans argued that the U.S. was being recolonized by Britain.
France and the Jay Treaty
French response:
In 1796, France rescinded its neutrality in response to the Jay Treaty.
France seized American ships trading with Britain.
This significantly impacted U.S. trade, as a large portion was with Britain ( US exports to Britain and imports from Britain).
In 1797, France seized over 300 U.S. cargoes.
US-France Conflict: X, Y, Z Affair & Quasi-War
Diplomatic breakdown:
Adams ended diplomatic relations with France.
Sent three commissioners to negotiate.
French officials demanded a $25,000 bribe and a $12 million loan, leading to the “X, Y, Z Affair.”
Quasi-War:
1798-1799: an undeclared naval war between the U.S. and France, primarily in the Caribbean.
By 1800, a negotiated settlement was reached.
Domestic Policies: Alien and Sedition Acts
Purpose and impact:
Alien & Sedition Acts were used to suppress Republican opposition.
Approximately a dozen Republican newspaper editors were jailed on sedition charges.
Federalists used the Sedition Act against political rivals.
One Republican, while jailed for sedition, ran for office and won.
Protests against the Sedition Act & Nullification
Opposition:
Jefferson and Madison protested via the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions.
Jefferson argued that the Constitution was a “compact” of states.
Powers not explicitly delegated to the federal government were considered unconstitutional and therefore nullified.
Section of Virginia Resolution
Principles:
The Virginia Resolution asserted that the federal government's powers were derived from a compact among the states.
These powers were limited by the Constitution.
States had the right to intervene against federal overreach to protect their rights and liberties.